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AGRICULTURE 

FOIL 

COMMON  SCHOOLS 


FISHER  AND  COTTON 


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AGRIC.  DEPT.  u, 


AGRICULTURE 
FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 


LIBKAKY 

COLLEGE  OF 

AGRICULTURE 

Berkeley.  Gal 


AGRICULTURE 
FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 


BY 

MARTIN   L.   FISHER 

Associate  Professor  of  Agronomy  in  the  College  of  Agriculture  and  Associate  Agriculturist 
jn  the  Experimental  Station,  Purdue  University, 

AND 

FASSETT  A.   COTTON 

President  of  State  Normal  School,  La  Crosse,  Wis. 


WITH     MANY     ILLUSTRATIONS 


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CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 
NEW  YORK:::::::::::::::::::::::::  1909 


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Copyright,  1909,  by 
CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 


EFT. 


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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The  authors  wish  to  acknowledge  their  obligations  for 
valuable  criticisms  and  suggestions  to  the  following  members 
of  the  faculty  of  Purdue  University:  J.  H.  Skinner,  Dean  and 
Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry;  W.  C.  Latta,  Professor  of 
Agriculture  and  Superintendent  of  Farmers'  Institutes;  James 
Troop,  Professor  of  Entomology  and  Horticulture;  A.  T. 
Wiancko,  Professor  of  Agronomy;  O.  F.  Hunziker,  Professor 
of  Dairying;  W.  W.  Smith,  Assistant  Professor  of  Animal 
Husbandry;  S.  D.  Conner,  Instructor  in  Agricultural  Chem- 
istry; and  Otis  Crane,  Instructor  in  Poultry.  Thanks  are 
also  due  to  Miss  Sarah  E.  Cotton,  State  Department  Public 
Instruction,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Credit  for  cuts  loaned  is  given  either  in  connection  with  the 
illustrations  or  in  the  List  of  Illustrations,  for  all  of  which  the 
authors  feel  themselves  deeply  obliged. 

M.  L.  Fisher. 

F.  A.  Cotton. 


3G129 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Arciiive 

in  2008  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/agricultureforcoOOfishrich 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Acknowledgments.  v 

List  of  Illustrations xi 

Introduction xix 

SECTION   I— SOILS 

CHAPTER 

I.  The  Origin  op  the  Soil 1 

II.  The  Make-up  op  the  Soil      .         .         .        .         .  9 

III.  Physical  Properties  op  Soils        ....  15 

IV.  Drainage  and  Irrigation 24 

V.  Handling  the  Soil 34 

VI.  Farm  Manures         ...."...  49 

VII.  Commercial  Fertilizers 55 

SECTION   II— FARM  CROPS 

VIII.  Classipication  op  Farm  Crops       ....  64 

IX.  Corn 67 

X.  Wheat 80 

XI.  Other  Cereals 88 

XII.  Roots,  Tubers,  Bulbs 96 

XIII.  Forage  Crops .105 

XIV.  Other  Farm  Crops 121 

XV.  Seed  Selection 129 

XVI.  Rotations 133 

vii 


Vlll  CONTENTS 

SECTION   III— HORTICULTURE 

CHAPTEB  p^^OB 

XVII.  I.    Pomology I37 

XVIII.  Propagation  of  the  Fruits 140 

XIX.  Tillage 145 

XX.  Setting  the  Orchard  and  Caring  for  it    .        .  149 

XXI.  The  Fruits I55 

XXII.  II.     Olericulture  or  Vegetable  Growing  .         .  166 

XXIII.  Raising  Plants 169 

XXIV.  Some  of  the  Common  Vegetables         .         ,         .173 
XXV.  III.     Landscape  Gardening   .        .         .         .         .  181 

XXVI.  Plants  that  May  be  Used 185 

XXVII.  Insects — Injurious  and  Beneficial      .         .         .189 

XXVIII.  Controlling  Insects 200 

XXIX.  Plant  Diseases  and  Their  Treatment         .         .  207 

SECTION   IV— ANIMAL   HUSBANDRY 

XXX.  Farm  Animals:  I — The  Horse        .         .         .         .  213 

XXXI.  Farm  Animals:  II — Cattle     .         .                 .         .  227 

XXXII.  Farm  Animals:  III — Sheep  and  Goats          .         .  243 

XXXIII.  Farm  Animals:  IV — Swine 257 

XXXIV.  The  Breeding  of  Live  Stock        ....  267 
XXXV.  Some  Terms  Used  in  Live  Stock  Breeding         .  272 

XXXVI.  The  Feeding  of  Animals 274 

XXXVII.  Balanced  Rations  and  Feeding  Standards  .         .  281 

XXXVIII.  Selecting  Animals  and  Methods  OF  Feeding  .         .  283 


CONTENTS  IX 
SECTION   V— DAIRYING 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XXXIX.  Dairying 290 

XL.  Composition  and  Qualities  of  Milk     .        .        .  294 

XLI.  Producing  Good  Milk    ......  299 

XLII.  Butter-Making        .        .         .         .         .         .         .  310 

XLIII.  Milk  Products,  Other  than  Butter    .         .         .319 

XLIV.  Testing  Milk 325 

XLV.  About  Bees 330 

XLVI.  Poultry 339 

XLVII.  Care  of  Poultry 348 

Appendix  A 356 

Appendix  B 360 

Appendix  C 363 

Index 375 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

1.  Land  Damaged  by  Washing 7 

By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station. 

2.  Plowing  by  Steam 18 

Plowing  by  steam  has  become  a  popular  method  on  many  large 
farms,  especially  in  the  West  and  North-west. 
By  courtesy  of  the  Rural  New  Yorker,  N.  Y. 

3.  Crop  Failure  Due  to  Lack  of  Drainage       ...       26 

By  courtesy  of  Prof.  G.  I.  Christie,  Purdue  University. 

4.  A  Walking  Breaking  Plow 35 

By  courtesy  of  the  Oliver  Chilled  Plow  Works,  South  Bend,  Ind. 

5.  A  Subsoil  Plow 37 

By  courtesy  of  the  Oliver  Chilled  Plow  Works,  South  Bend,  Ind. 

6.  A  Good  Job  of  Plowing 40 

A  reversible  plow  is  being  used. 

By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station. 

7.  A  Disk  Harrow  at  Work 42 

By  courtesy  of  the  American  Harrow  Co.,  Detroit,  Mich. 

8.  The  Root  System  of  a  Corn  Plant    ...    .46 

One  of  these  large  roots  cut  off  in  cultivating  means  much  loss  of 
moisture  and  food  to  the  plant. 
By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station. 

9.  A  Two-Row  Corn  Cultivator 47 

By  courtesy  of  The  Avery  Co.,  Peoria,  III. 

10.  Using  a  Manure  Spreader 52 

Spread  in  this  way  manure  gives  best  results. 
By  courtesy  of  the  Smith  Mfg.  Co.,  \b9>  E.  Harrison  Street,  Chicago,  III. 

11.  Result  of  Using  Fertilizers  on  Wheat         ...       56 

By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station. 
xi 


Xll  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

12.  Applying  Lime  to  Land  with  a  Special  Machine  .       62 

By  courtesy  of  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station. 

13.  Putting  in  Shock  is  a  Good  Way  to  Save  the  Corn 

Fodder  Until  it  is  Ready  to  be  Shredded        .        .       68 
By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station. 

14.  A  Harrow  Tooth  Cultivator 72 

A  good  tool  for  preserving  a  soil  mulch  in  tall  com. 

By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station, 

15.  Two  Good  Ways  to  Dry  Seed  Corn        ....      75 

The  upper  picture  shows  the  seed  ears  hung  to  rafters  of  the 
tool  shed;  the  lower  picture  shows  racks  made  of  lath  and 
six-inch  boards.     Every  farmer  can  use  one  or  the  other  of 
these  schemes. 
By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station. 

16.  Testing  Vitality  op  Corn — ^This  is  One  of  the   Good 

Methods 76 

By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  ExperimerU  Station. 

17.  Good  Seed  Ears 78 

Notice  the  cylindrical  shape,  straight  rows,  uniform  kernels,  and 
well-formed  butts  and  tips. 
By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station. 

18.  Poor  Seed  Ears 78 

Notice   that   these   ears   show   characteristics   just   opposite   to 
those  in  the  cut  above. 
By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station. 

19.  An  Onion  Field  .        .        .        .        ,        .        .        .     103 

A  harvesting  scene  in  an  Indiana  field. 

By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station. 

20.  The  Large  Root  System  of  the  Clover  Plant     .        .     108 

Showing  the  large  number  of  nodules  on  the  roots.     It  is  these 
that  make  the  clover  plant  so  beneficial  to  the  soil. 
By  courtesy  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture — Bureau  of  Plant 
Industry. 

21.  A  Cow-Pea  Plant 110 

Some  varieties  produce  more  vines  than  this  one. 

By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station. 

22.  A  Typical  Soy-Bean  Plant 112 

Notice  the  nodules  at  the  base  of  the  plant  and  on  the  roots. 
These  are  full  of  bacteria  which  gather  nitrogen  from  the  air. 
By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  XIU 

PAGE 

23.  A  Plot  of  German  Millet  Ready  to  Cut  for  Hay      .     114 

This  patch  was  about  five  feet  tall  and  made  four  tons  of  hay 
per  acre. 
By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station. 

24.  Filling  a  Silo 116 

This  is  one  of  the  best  methods  of  preserving  the  com  crop. 
By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station. 

25.  Sorghum  for  Green  Feed 118 

This  field  made  eleven  tons  per  acre  of  green  feed. 

By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station. 

26.  Methods  of  Grafting 143 

By  courtesy  of  the  Pennsylvania  Department  of  Agriculture. 

27.  A  Basket  of  Fine  Peaches 147 

The  large  size  and  uniformity  were  secured  by  judicious  thinning. 
By  courtesy  of  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station. 

28.  A  Planting  Board 151 

An  easy  device  for  setting  trees  in  line. 

29.  A  Scene  in  an  Indiana  Apple  Orchard  .         .         .156 

One  hundred  and  seventy  acres  are  set  in  apples,  principally 
Yellow  Transparent,  Grimes'  Golden,  Rome  Beauty,  Jona- 
than, Winesap,  and  Genet. 
By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Horticultural  Society. 

30.  Hot-Beds  Used  for  Starting  Early  Plants  .         .         .170 

By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station. 

31.  A  Basket  of  Choice  Muskmelons  Raised  in  Southern 

Indiana 176 

Notice  the  finely  netted  rinds. 

By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station. 

32.  An  Attractive  Country  Residence  ....     182 

Many  homes  could  be  made  attractive  by  the  planting  of  flowers, 
shrubs,  and  trees. 

The  home  of  K.  E.  Morgan,  Otsego,  N.  Y. 

33.  San  Jose  Scale  on  Bark  (much  enlarged)    .        .        .     191 

Notice  the  peculiar  shell-like  covering  of  the  insect.     One  must 
use  a  magnifying  glass  to  identify  the  scale. 
By  courtesy  of  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station. 


34.     A  CuRcuLio  Catcher 193 

The  insects  are  jarred  on  to  the  sheet  and  then  swept  into  a 

bucket  and  killed. 
By  courtesy  of  the  New  York  {Cornell)  Experiment  Station. 


XIV  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

35.  The  Peach  Tree  Borer  and  Its  Work  ....     194 

Masses  of  gum  at  base  of  tree  infested  with  borers. 

The  adult  insects. 

Larvae  on  a  trunk  that  has  been  injured. 

By  courtesy  of  the  New  York  {Cornell)  Experiment  Station. 

36.  A  Parasitic  Insect    .         .  • 201 

This  one  destroys  tree  borers. 

By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station. 

37a.  Results  of  Spraying 203 

The  crop  of  one  tree.    The  large  pile  is  good  fruit;  the  small  pile 
poor. 

By  courtesy  of  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station. 

376.  Results  of  Not  Spraying 204 

The  crop  of  one  tree.    The  piles  of  good  and  poor  fruit  are  about 
equal  in  this  case. 

By  courtesy  of  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station. 

38.  A  Power  Sprayer  Used  in  the  Orchard  at   Purdue 

University 205 

By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station. 

39.  A  Potato  Sprayer  for  Bugs  and  Blights      .         .  210 

This  kind  is  useful  in  large  fields. 
By  courtesy  of  The  Goulds  Mfg.  Co.,  Seneca  Falls,  N.  Y. 

40.  Marindas  (62414)  42696 214 

A  prize  winning  Percheron  imported  from  France. 

By  courtesy  of  McLaughlin  Bros.,  Columbus,  Ohio. 

41.  Royal  Prince,  First  Prize  Three- Year-Old  Clydesdale 

Stallion  .         .         .  .  ,      .         .         •        •         •     215 

International  Live  Stock  Show,  Chicago,  December,  1908. 
By  courtesy  of  Alex.  Galbraith  &  Son,  Dekalb,  III. 

42.  Minno  3577,  a  Champion  German  Coach  Stallion    .         .219 

By  courtesy  of  J.  Crouch  &  Son,  Lafayette,  Ind. 

43.  Aiken  Dillon,  a  Typical  Roadster         .  .        .    221 

Owned  by  G.  R.  Cooke,  Trenton,  N.  J. 

44.  Shetland  Pony,  General  Shafter  .         .  .        .    224 

A  prize  winner  at  many  State  Fairs. 

By  courtesy  of  Charles  E.  Bunn,  Peoria,  III. 

45.  Imported  Merry  Hampton 228 

A  typical  Shorthorn. 

By  courtesy  of  The  Farmer's   Voice,  Chicago,  III. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  XV 

PAGE 

46.  A  Typical  Show  Herd  of  Hereford  Cattle.        .        .     230 

By  courtesy  of  The  Breeder's  Gazette,  Chicago,  III. 

47.  Lucy's  Prince,  46181 231 

Typical  Angus  Bull,  three  times  champion  of  his  breed  at  Chicago 
International  Live  Stock  Shows. 

Owned  by  D.  Bradfute  &  Son,  Xenia,  Ohio. 

48.  Hood  Farm  Pogis  9th,  55552.     A  Typical  Jersey  Bull    234 

By  courtesy  of  Hood  Farm,  Lowell,  Mass. 

49.  Dolly  Dimple,  19144  Adv.  R 236 

A  typical  Guernsey  cow.     Two-year-old  record — 14,009  pounds 
milk;  703  pounds  butter-fat  in  one  year,  being  the  world's 
record  for  age  of  all  breeds. 
By  courtesy  of  Lincoln  B.  WeUs,  Langwater  Farms,  North  Easton,  Mass 

50.  Holstein-Friesian    Cow,    Aagie    Cornucopia    Pauline, 

48426 237 

Champion  butter  cow  of  the  world  from  1904  to  1907.  Record 
—-659  pounds  milk,  34  pounds  5.2  ounces  butter  in  7  days 
at  the  age  of  4  years  11  months. 

By  courtesy  of  D.  W.  Field,  Dutchland  Farms,  Montello,  Mass. 

51.  A  Group  of  Dutch  Belted  Cattle  in  Pasture     .         .     239 

Part  of  the  herd  of  G.  G.  Gibbs,  Marksboro,  N.  J. 
By  courtesy  of  The  Practical  Dairyman. 

52.  English  Shorthorn  Cow,  Tulip  Leaf,  Owned  by  Lord 

Rothschild,  Tring  Park,  England       .         .         .  241 

Record — 10,502  pounds  of  milk  in  one  year  when  11  years  old. 
She  is  a  good  specimen  of  the  dual-purpose  breeds. 
By  courtesy  of  C.  N.  Amett,  Purdue  University. 

53.  A  Typical  Cotswold  . 244 

Owned  by  Alex.  W.  Arnold,  Galesville,  Wis. 

By  courtesy  of  The  Farmer's  Voice,  Chicago,  lU. 

54.  A  Shropshire,  an  Excellent  Specimen  of  the  Mutton 

AND  Wool  Type 246 

Note  the  blocky,  compact  form. 
By  courtesy  of  G.  H.  Davison,  Altamont  Stock  Farm,  Milbrook,  N.  Y. 

55-    Dorset  Horn  Sheep 250 

By  courtesy  of  C.  E.  Hamilton,  Heart's  Delight  Farm,  Chazy,  N.  Y. 

56.     A  Rambouillet  Sheep  .         .         .         .         .         .     252 

Notice  that  the  form  is  less  smooth  and  compact  than  in  the 
mutton  type. 

By  courtesy  of  Daniel  W.  Lesh,  Markle,  Ind. 


XVI  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

57.  Wensleydale  Ewes  in  Pasture 253 

This  is  becoming  a  very  popular  breed  in  England. 

By  courtesy  of  C.  N.  Amett,  Purdue  University. 

58.  Angora  Goats    . 254 

By  courtesy  of  George  A.  Philippi,  Welcome,  Wis. 

59.  A  Typical  Berkshire 258 

By  courtesy  of  A.  J.  Lovejoy  &  Son,  Roscoe,  III. 

60.  Nora  P.,  160,484,  a  Typical  Poland-China     .        .  260 

Owned  by  Purdue  University. 

Photo  by  C.  N.  Amett,  Purdue  University. 

61.  Stark- Ad  VANCE,  23,477 262 

Chester  White. 

By  courtesy  of  C.  G.  Fisher  &  Co.,  Collinsville,  Ohio. 

62.  Summer  Hill  Colston  Eclipse  2nd,  4,232        .        .        .     265 

The  large  Yorkshire,  a  type  of  the  bacon  breeds.    Note  the  long 
deep  sides. 
Owned  by  Thomas  H.  Canfield,  Lake  Park,  Minn. 

63.  Fyvie  Knight,  a  Pure-bred  Angus  ....    276 

Grand  Champion  fat  steer  at  International  Live  Stock  Show, 
Chicago,   December,  1908. 

By  courtesy  of  Purdue  University. 

64.  A  High-Grade  Steer  in  "Feeder"  Condition        .        .    284 

He  made  a  daily  gain  of  3.08  pounds  for  six  months  in  a  feeding 
experiment. 
By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station 

65.  A  Poor  Type  of  Steer  for  Feeding  Purposes      .        .    285 

This  steer  made  a  daily  gain  of  .77  pounds  for  six  months  in  a 
feeding  experiment.     Compare  the  form  of  this  steer  with 
that  in  Fig.  64. 
By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station. 

66.  This  is  a  Type  of  the  Modern  Dairy  Barn,  Fitted  for 

the  Production  of  Clean  Milk 291 

Notice  the  possibilities  for  sunlight  and  ventilation.     The  cement 
floors  aid  in  cleanliness. 
By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station. 

67.  A  Profitable  Herd  of  Dairy  Cows         ....     292 

This  herd  made  an  average  yearly  record  of  259.6  pounds  of 
butter-fat  per  cow. 
By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  XVU 

PAGE 

68.  Unfavorable  Conditions  for  the  Production  of  Clean 

AND  Healthful  Milk 301 

During  the  cold  months  many  milch  cows  are  stabled  in  bams 
no  better  than  this  one. 
By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station. 

69.  An  Unkempt  Dairy  Cow 302 

Clean  milk  cannot  be  produced  from  cows  kept  in  this  condition. 
By  courtesy  of  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station. 

70.  Washing  the  Udder  before  Beginning  to  Milk   .         .     303 

By  courtesy  of  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station. 

71.  A  Milking  Machine  at  Work 304 

Many  large  dairies  are  using  these  machines.     They  lessen  the 
labor  of  milking  and  keep  the  milk  clean.     The  machine  is 
operated  by  compressed  air. 
By  courtesy  of  D.  H.  Burrell  &  Co.,  Little  Falls,  N.  Y. 

72.  This  Cut  Shows  the  Effectiveness  op  each  of  the  Four 

Methods  op  Separating  the  Cream      ....     305 

Note  the   small    loss    where   the   centrifugal   separator  is  used, 
shown  by  the  print  at  the  left. 
By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station. 

73.  A  Good  Kind  op  Milk  Cooler  and  Aerator  .         .     307 

The  milk  is  poured  into  the  top  and  runs  out  of  small  holes, 
spreading  over  the  surface  of  the  lower  part  in  which  is  ice- 
water. 
By  courtesy  of  The  Champion  Milk  Cooler  Co.,  Cortland,  N.  Y. 

74.  Where  Much  Milk  is  Bottled  for  City  Delivery,   a 

Machine  which  will  Fill  Several  Bottles  at  One 

Operation  is  Desirable 308 

This  one  fills  four  quart  and  five  pint  bottles  at  one  time. 
By  courtesy  of  Rice  &  Adams,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

75.  A  Lever  Butter-Worker 317 

By  courtesy  of  the  Wisconsin  College  of  Agriculture. 

76.  A  Babcock  Milk  Tester  and  Testing  Outfit         .         .    326 

By  courtesy  of  The  Creamery  Package  Mfg.  Co.,  Chicago,  III. 

77.  Location  of  Apiary 331 

The  trees  give  shade  and  the  fence  and  buildings  protect  from 
winds. 
By  courtesy  of  The  A.  I.  Root  Co.,  Medina,  Ohio. 

78.  Showing  Queen,  Worker,  and  Drone     ....    332 

By  courtesy  of  The  A.  I.  Root  Co.,  Medina,  Ohio. 

79.  A  Mass  op  Honey-comb 334 

By  courtesy  of  The  A.  I.  Root  Co.,  Medina,  Ohio. 


XVlll  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

80.  A  Modern  Bee-Hive  and  its  Parts  .         .  335 

By  courtesy  of  The  A.  I.  Root  Co.,  Medina,  Ohio. 

81.  An  Apiary  in  Winter  Quarters      .  ...     336 

By  courtesy  of  The  A.  I.  Root  Co.,  Medina,  Ohio. 

82.  Hiving  a  Swarm  op  Bees 337 

By  courtesy  of  The  A.  I.  Root  Co.,  Medina,  Ohio. 

83.  Plymouth  Rock  Cock  and  Pullet 340 

Owned  by  U.  R.  Fishel,  Hope,  Ind. 

84.  A  Rhode  Island  Red         . 341 

Bred  and  owned  by  B.  H.  Scranton,  Rising  Sun,  Ind. 

85.  Buff  Cochin 342 

Contrast  the  Cochin  with  Plymouth  Rock  and  Rhode  Island  Red. 
By  courtesy  of  Arthur  R.  Sharp,  Boston,  Mass. 

86.  Prize-Winning  Brown  Leghorn  Hen      ....     343 

Owned  by  Sophia  C.  &  Lee  Pitchlynn,  Washington,  D.  C. 

87.  A  Buff  Orpington  Hen 344 

By  courtesy  of  Will  H.  Schadt,  Goshen,  Ind. 

88.  A  Pair  of  Pekin  Ducks 345 

By  courtesy  of  George  C.  Wells^  Farina,  III. 

89.  A  Toulouse  Gander 345 

First  Prize  at  Madison  Square  Garden,  New  York  City,  Poultry 

Show. 
By  courtesy  of  Webster  A.  J.  Kuney,  Seneca  Falls,  N.  Y. 

90.  A  Bronze  Turkey 346 

By  courtesy  of  E.  W.  Ringwood,  Oxford,  Ohio. 

91.  An  Incubator 349 

By  courtesy  of  Cyphers  Incubator  Co.,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

92.  The  Laying  and  Breeding  House  Used  at  the  Maine 

Experiment  Station  for  Experimental  Work  with 
Poultry .        .350 

By  courtesy  of  the  Maine  Experiment  Station. 

93.  This  Dozen  of  Black  Minorca  Eggs  Won  the  First 

Prize  at  the  Lebanon,  Ind.,  Egg  Show,  1908.    They 

Weighed  32^  Ounces 352 

By  courtesy  of  Otis  Crane,  Lebanon,  Ind. 


INTRODUCTION 

While  it  is  not  the  province  of  the  public  schools,  as  at 
present  organized,  to  teach  the  trades,  it  is  their  privilege  and 
their  duty  to  put  the  child  in  intelligent  touch  with  the  life 
about  him  and  to  use  all  of  the  means  at  hand  in  the  process 
of  education. 

Much  has  been  said  about  the  tendency  among  boys  to 
leave  the  farm  for  the  town,  and  many  attempts  at  explana- 
tion and  justification  have  been  made.  While  it  is  perfectly 
proper  for  the  boy  to  leave  his  father's  farm  and  seek  his 
fortune  in  a  crowded  city,  sometimes  he  has  gone  with  the 
mistaken  notion  that  he  could  substitute  wit  for  work  in  life's 
contest,  or  because  of  a  lack  of  appreciation  of  the  dignity  of 
labor.  Sometimes,  also,  he  has  gone  because  he  has  failed  to 
see  his  opportunities  on  the  farm.  The  fact  that  he  has  not 
always  bettered  his  condition  has  suggested  a  possibility  of 
bringing  about  at  least  a  more  intelligent  consideration  of  the 
question. 

With  the  lessening  of  distance  between  town  and  country 
by  telephone,  interurbans,  rural  routes,  with  the  conveniences 
of  life  brought  to  the  very  door  of  the  farmer,  with  much  of 
the  drudgery  of  farm  life  removed  by  machinery,  it  looks  as 
though  the  tide  might  turn  from  town  to  country,  or  at  least 
as  though  the  exodus  from  the  farm  might  be  stayed. 

xix 


XX  INTRODUCTION 

AGRICULTURE  THE  DOMINANT  INTEREST 

An  essential  factor  in  education,  which  for  the  most  part 
has  been  overlooked,  is  to  be  found  in  the  environment  of  the 
child.  One's  power  of  interpretation  is  bounded  by  his  ex- 
perience, and  yet  we  have  gone  on  trying  to  fit  a  strange 
world  down  on  to  the  child.  We  have  expected  him  in  some 
way  or  other  to  understand  language  and  solve  problems  that 
are  entirely  foreign  to  him.  This  is  neither  good  pedagogy 
nor  good  common  sense.  The  school  work  must  he  based  upon 
what  the  child  brings  to  school  with  him.  His  life,  his  home, 
his  vocabulary,  his  experience  in  the  shop,  in  the  quarry,  on 
the  farm,  must  furnish  the  concrete  illustrations  of  the  truth 
to  be  taught.  It  is  the  thing  about  which  the  child  knows 
that  interests  him  and  that  becomes  the  best  means  of  inter- 
pretation. 

The  teacher,  therefore,  must  be  a  student  of  community  life 
as  well  as  of  text-books.  He  must  be  familiar  with  the  insti- 
tutions and  interests  of  the  community.  He  must  know  what 
the  children  know,  how  they  think,  and  in  what  terms  they 
express  themselves. 

Any  new  truth  which  the  child  gets  must  be  related  to  what 
he  already  knows.  The  closer  the  teacher  gets  to  the  real  ex- 
perience of  the  child  the  more  likely  he  is  to  awaken  a  live  in- 
terest. In  a  rural  community  agriculture  is  the  dominant 
industry.  It  determines  the  modes  of  life,  the  ways  of  think- 
ing, and  the  basis  of  comparison.  Therefore  the  problems  in 
arithmetic  can  be  more  readily  comprehended  if  they  are 
cast  in  terms  of  the  farm.  The  dominant  industry  or  interest 
is  the  key  that  must  unlock  new  truth. 

Arithmetical  truth  must  be  cast  in  the  concretest  terms 


INTRODUCTION  XXI 

possible.  A  little  local  coloring  often  takes  the  problem  at 
once  out  of  the  realm  of  the  strange.  The  actual  market  price 
of  a  commodity,  with  the  actual  amount  bought  or  sold  by  an 
actual  person,  may  transfer  a  problem  from  text  to  life. 
Language  work  becomes  at  once  interesting  if  based  upon 
actual  experience.  The  child  cannot  write  on  abstract 
themes,  but  he  can  tell  what  he  knows  and  he  can  be  taught 
to  tell  this  well.  In  geography  it  is  the  things  about  him  that 
interest  him,  and  through  these  alone  he  can  interpret  things 
that  are  foreign.  With  the  presentation  of  every  lesson  the 
skilful  teacher  will  seek  the  things  at  hand  that  may  be  the 
best  media  of  interpretation. 

Of  course  this  calls  for  a  complete  knowledge  of  the 
community.  The  teacher  should  know  the  district  in  every 
detail — its  extent  in  every  direction;  its  earth  facts,  such  as 
streams,  hills,  valleys;  its  farms;  its  houses;  its  acreage  in 
wheat,  corn,  and  oats;  its  officers,  and  its  religious  life. 
These  things  he  can  use  in  his  work  to  great  advantage, 
in  concrete  application  of  the  principles  he  is  trying  to 
teach.  If  he  knows  something  of  agriculture  his  work  in  a 
rural  community  will  be  much  easier.  If  his  knowledge  is 
scientific,  so  much  the  better.  Certainly  he  cannot  hope  to 
deal  in  an  |intelligent  way  with  the  problems  of  a  community 
with  which  he  is  unacquainted. 

DIGNIFY   WORK   AND   CREATE   RESPECT   FOR  INDUSTRY 

But  aside  from  making  the  work  concrete  the  dominant 
community  interest  may  be  made  to  serve  another  purpose. 
It  may  dignify  work  in  general  by  creating  respect  for  the  in- 
dustry in  particular.    Somehow  the  things  at  hand  are  not 


XXll  INTRODUCTION 

appreciated.  Farm  life  is  not  attractive  to  the  boys  and  girls, 
and  they  turn  their  eyes  toward  the  city.  The  occupations  of 
the  fathers  do  not  appeal  to  the  sons.  There  is  a  belief  that 
something  better  is  to  be  found,  and  so  there  is  a  lack  of 
respect  for  the  calling  of  the  father.  Furthermore,  there  is  a 
lack  of  respect  for  manual  labor  and  a  belief  that  education 
can  make  it  possible  to  live  without  work.  As  most  of  the 
boys  and  girls  will  be  compelled  to  work  with  their  hands, 
they  should  be  taught  early  that  labor  is  honorable  and  that 
idleness  is  disgraceful.  By  using  the  dominant  industry  the 
teacher  can  create  a  respect  for  it  and  at  the  same  time  show 
its  possibilities.  It  can  be  shown  that  brain  and  muscle  can 
accomplish  just  as  much  on  the  farm  as  in  the  city  and  that 
the  chances  for  success  are  greater.  It  may  not  be  the  prov- 
ince of  the  public  school  to  teach  any  trade  or  industry  as 
such,  but  it  is  the  province  of  the  school  to  teach  the  boys  and 
girls  how  to  work  and  to  put  them  in  the  path  of  honest  living. 
This  is  the  purpose  of  the  work  in  agricvlture. 

SUGGESTED   COURSE 

The  work  offered  in  (this  text  is  intended  for  the  children 
in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  and  in  the  first  and  second 
years  in  the  high  schools.  The  text  may  be  used  to  advant- 
age as  a  reader  in  the  sixth  grade.  When  the  course  of 
study  is  too  crowded  the  work  may  be  taken  three  or  four 
times  a  week,  supplementary  to  nature  study,  or  it  may  be 
taken  before  or  after  school. 

This  is  a  suggestion  of  what  may  be  done  by  live  teachers 
in  the  district  schools  and  in  the  country  and  town  graded 
schools.    The  work  should  be  done  in  connection  with  arith- 


INTRODUCTION  XXlll 

metic,  spelling,  language,  geography,  etc.  These  suggestions 
carefully  worked  out  in  the  grades  indicated,  followed  by  a 
study  of  this  book,  will  put  the  children  in  sympathetic  touch 
with  the  community;  it  will  inspire  them  with  respect  for 
honest  labor  of  all  kinds,  and  show  them  that  there  is  a  de- 
mand for  brains  on  the  farm. 

For  an  application  of  the  principles  above  discussed  the 
teacher  is  referred  to  the  section,  *^  EdiLcation  and  Agricidt- 
ure/'  in  the  Appendix. 


AGRICULTURE  FOR  COMMON 
SCHOOLS 

SECTION  I— SOILS 

CHAPTER  I 
THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  SOIL 

In  a  study  of  agriculture  the  soil  should  first  claim  our 
attention.  It  is  the  foundation  of  all  our  study.  Should  we 
study  farm  crops  we  need  to  know  what  kind  of  soil  is  suited 
to  each  and  how  it  should  be  handled  to  get  good  results. 
When  we  study  the  growing  of  fruits  and  vegetables  we  are 
interested  in  knowing,  first  of  all,  what  kind  of  soil  is  best  for 
each.  In  dealing  with  animals  we  are  concerned  about  their 
food  and  that  brings  us  back  to  the  soil  in  which  the  plants 
producing  the  food  were  raised. 

Making   Soil. — 1.  Weathering. — We  have  learned  from 

our  geographies  that  at  one  time  early  in  the  history  of  the 

Earth  it  was  a  mass  of  melted   matter.     After  a  time  it 

began  to  cool,  and  the  outside  of  the  ball  hardened  into 

rock.    The  seasons  kept  on  changing,  the  rain  descended 

and  the  temperature  varied  from  time  to  time.    The  changes 

were  rriore  than  the  solid  rock  could  stand  and  it  began  to 

crumble.     Soil  was  formed.    The  action  of  the  air  and  the 

weather  upon  the  earth  crust  is  called  weathering.     The 

1 


2  AQRI^ULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

weathering  of  rocks  has  been  the  source  of  most  of  what  we 
call  soil.  This  process  is  still  going  on.  The  small  pieces  of 
gravel  in  the  soil  (in  our  fields)  are  being  made  smaller  each 
year  by  the  wear  and  tear  of  the  winds  and  rain  and  by  the 
freezing  and  thawing  of  winter.  Wherever  a  gravel  pit  or  stone 
quarry  is  opened  many  boulders  and  pieces  of  rock  are  thrown 
aside.  The  next  spring  after  these  have  been  exposed  many 
rocks  will  be  seen  to  be  crumbling,  while  others  do  not  seem 
to  be  affected.  Some  rocks  are  more  easily  broken  up  than 
others,  but  all  will  yield  in  time. 

2.  Plants. — Growing  plants  have  had  much  to  do  in  mak- 
ing soil  and  are  still  exerting  an  influence  on  the  breaking 
down  of  rocks.  We  have  all  seen  moss  and  lichens  growing 
upon  large  boulders.  In  some  cases  there  are  two  or  three 
inches  of  material  on  the  boulder.  These  plants  are  attacking 
the  rock  by  means  of  the  acids  excreted  from  their  root-like 
parts.  The  carbonic  acid  produced  by  the  decay  of  the 
dead  parts  also  tends  to  break  up  the  rock.  Sometimes 
the  amount  of  material  on  the  boulder  is  deep  enough  for 
large  plants  to  grow  in  it.  Then  the  decomposing  action  is 
all  the  greater,  because  of  the  greater  activity  of  the  real 
roots.  Of  course,  all  the  action  is  very  small  for  any  one 
year,  but  when  carried  on  for  many  years  it  amounts  to  a 
great  deal.  The  material  on  the  boulder  is  real  soil,  but 
in  most  instances  it  has  been  derived  from  the  rock  and  the 
decayed  vegetation. 

We  must  not  forget  also  that  if  there  is  ever  so  small  a  crack 
in  the  rock  the  tiny  roots  of  plants  will  work  their  way  into  h 
and  make  it  larger  and  so  let  in  the  water  which  we  shall  see 
helps  to  tear  the  rock  apart.  The  writer  has  seen  a  large 
boulder  weighing  several  tons  split  in  two  pieces  and  a  tree 


THE   ORIGIN  OF  THE   SOIL  3 

growing  up  between  them.  When  this  tree  was  young  the 
crack  was  small,  but  as  the  tree  grew  the  roots  spread  the 
crack  wider  and  wider.  Most  of  us  have  seen  brick  and  ce- 
ment sidewalks  made  uneven  by  the  roots  of  trees  growing 
under  them. 

Sometimes  plants  grow  year  after  year  in  swampy  places  or 
in  shallow  ponds.  At  the  end  of  summer  the  plants  die  down 
and  fall  to  the  ground  or  into  the  water.  The  next  year  a 
new  growth  of  plants  comes  up  and  dies  down  again  in  the 
autumn.  After  this  process  has  continued  for  many  years 
there  is  quite  an  accumulation  of  vegetable  matter  on  the 
ground  or  in  the  pond.  This  rots  more  or  less  and  comes  to 
be  a  kind  of  soil.  If  the  rotting  takes  place  under  water,  in 
which  case  it  will  not  be  very  complete,  peat  is  formed.  Peat 
is  generally  rather  solid  and  shows  the  original  shape  of  the 
plants.  It  is  on  the  road  to  form  coal.  But  if  the  vegetable 
matter  is  exposed  to  the  air  and  is  sometimes  water-soaked, 
and  sometimes  dry,  it  decays  completely  and  forms  muck. 
Muck  is  generally  soft  and  spongy  and  does  not  show  any 
trace  of  what  it  was  formerly.  Frequently  muck  has  a  good 
deal  of  sand  and  clay  mixed  with  it  by  water  which  washes 
sand  and  clay  particles  over  the  vegetable  matter. 

3.  Water, — Water  has  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the  making 
of  soil.  Some  rocks  are  porous  and  let  a  good  deal  of  water 
soak  into  them.  When  the  water  freezes  it  bursts  the  rock, 
which  gradually  crumbles.  Water  will  also  dissolve  some  of 
the  material  of  which  the  rock  is  made  and  in  this  way 
weakens  its  structure. 

Doubtless  we  have  all  seen  the  water  in  a  shallow  stream 
rolling  the  gravel  stones  along  on  the  bottom.  As  these  peb- 
bles roll  along  and  strike  against  each  other  they  knock  off 


4  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

corners  and  become  smaller  and  smaller  until  they  are  noth- 
ing but  sand.  The  parts  rubbed,  off  are  very  small  and  are 
carried  into  still  water  where  they  sink  to  the  bottom,  and 
when  the  stream  changes  its  course  they  appear  as  real  soil. 

Perhaps  the  most  noticeable  action  of  water  is  when  it 
works  in  the  form  of  ice.  We  have  seen  cakes  of  ice  all  cov- 
ered with  mud  floating  down  stream  in  the  spring.  We  have 
seen,  too,  where  ice  cakes  have  struck  trees  and  knocked  off 
the  bark.  We  are  told  by  geologists  that  centuries  ago  all  of 
the  North  American  continent  as  far  south  as  the  Ohio  and 
Missouri  rivers  was  covered  by  ice  to  a  great  depth.  The  ice 
moved  slowly  down  from  the  north  like  a  great  river  and 
carried  everything  before  it.  It  gathered  up  great  rocks,  and 
shoved  them  along  and  rubbed  them  over  other  rocks.  Of 
course,  when  these  rocks  were  ground  against  each  other 
pieces  were  broken  off  which  were  carried  along  and  ground 
on  other  rocks,  until  great  quantities  were  crushed  into  fine 
powder  which  we  now  call  soil.  All  over  the  region  covered 
by  the  glaciers  are  to  be  found  large  boulders  which  escaped 
crushing  and  were  left  behind  when  the  ice  melted.  These 
boulders  are  nearly  always  rounded,  owing  to  their  being 
rolled  over  and  over  and  coming  in  contact  with  other  rocks. 

4.  Animals. — While  the  dead  bodies  of  animals  contribute 
something  toward  the  making  of  soil,  the  work  of  living  ani- 
mals is  more  noticeable.  When  such  animals  as  gophers, 
prairie-dogs,  wood-chucks,  rabbits,  crayfish,  earthworms  and 
ants  burrow  in  the  earth  and  throw  out  raw  subsoil  and  small 
pieces  of  rock  they  are  helping  to  make  soil,  for  this  raw 
material  will  be  acted  upon  by  freezing  and  thawing,  and 
the  roots  of  plants,  and  very  soon  will  become,  like  the 
surface  soil,  fit  to  produce  crops. 


THE   ORIGIN  OF  THE   SOIL  5 

5.  Wind. — ^The  wind  does  its  greatest  work  in  distributing 
soil,  but  it  has  a  part  in  the  making  of  it  as  well.  Where 
particles  of  sand  are  blown  against  solid  rock,  the  solid 
part  is  gradually  worn  away  and  becomes  soil.  The. friction 
between  the  rock  and  the  sand  which  is  being  blown  about 
has  a  tendency  to  rub  off  pieces,  just  as  is  the  case  in  the 
bottom  of  the  stream. 

From  the  above  we  see  that  there  are  many  agencies  at  work 
making  soil.  These  have  been  working  and  will  continue  to 
work  for  centuries.  It  is  likely  that  they  are  as  active  now 
as  they  ever  were  and  soil  is  being  made  just  as  fast  now  as 
it  was  centuries  ago.  We  shall  see  in  the  next  chapter  how 
much  of  the  soil  is  wasted. 

6.  Distribution. — The  greater  part  of  the  soil  that  we  see 
in  the  fields  has  not  always  been  there.  In  that  part  of  the 
country  which  was  once  covered  by  glaciers  most  of  the  soil 
has  been  brought  from  some .  other  place.  South  of  the  re- 
gion covered  by  ice  much  of  the  soil  has  been  formed  from 
the  rock  underlying  the  region.  However,  little  of  the  soil 
lies  where  it  was  formed,  but  has  been  moved  by  water  and 
wind.  Soils  may  be  divided  into  two  classes:  sedentary  and 
transported.  Where  the  natural  rock  has  decayed  and  the 
soil  has  gradually  become  deeper  and  deeper  we  have 
sedentary  soils.  Muck  soils  belong  to  the  sedentary  class 
because  they  are  found  in  the  place  where  they  have  been 
formed. 

Transported  soils  are  found  everywhere.  Water  is  one  of 
the  greatest  agencies  in  carrying  soil  from  place  to  place. 
We  see  its  work  along  every  stream  wherever  the  bank  is  low 
enough  to  allow  overflow.  When  it  rains  some  water  gener- 
ally runs  off  the  sloping  parts  of  the  fields  and  finds  its  way 


6  AGKICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

into  the  streams.  As  it  runs  down  over  the  land  it  washes 
loose  and  carries  along  many  particles  of  soil.  When  these 
little  streams  come  together  in  a  larger  stream  the  soil  which 
they  have  carried  along  makes  the  water  muddy.  The  large 
stream  flows  along,  and  if  the  rain  has  been  a  heavy  one  it 
may  overflow  its  banks  in  the  low  places  and  spread  out  over 
the  "bottom."  When  the  water  comes  to  a  standstill  the  fine 
particles  of  soil  settle  out,  and  after  the  water  goes  down  they 
remain  behind  as  a  thin  layer  over  the  land.  Many  creek  and 
river  bottoms  have  been  built  up  in  this  way.  Such  soil  is 
called  alluvial  soil.  If  the  stream  does  not  overflow,  it  may 
carry  the  fine  particles  along  until  it  reaches  the  gulf,  bay  or 
ocean.  Then,  in  the  still  water,  they  settle  and  form  the  deltas 
which  are  common  at  the  mouths  of  many  large  rivers.  The 
Mississippi  and  Amazon  rivers  deposit  enormous  amounts  of 
soil  in  this  way. 

When  this  thin  layer  of  mud  is  deposited  over  fields  along 
the  streams  it  is  generally  beneficial,  especially  if  the  overflow 
comes  when  there  is  no  crop  on  the  land.  Farmers  say  that 
an  overflow  is  as  good  as  a  covering  of  manure.  This  is  be- 
cause the  particles  of  soil  are  the  very  richest  part  of  the  land 
from  which  they  were  washed.  The  Nile  valley  is  enriched 
every  year  by  the  overflow  of  the  Nile  which  brings  down 
soil  from  its  mountain  sources. 

Glaciers  have  had  much  to  do  with  transporting  soil.  The 
country  over  which  the  glacier  has  passed  has  spread  over  it 
after  the  ice  melts  a  large  amount  of  soil  carried  from  other 
regions.  Sometimes  this  is  as  much  as  five  hundred  feet 
deep,  but  on  an  average  about  thirty  to  fifty  feet.  Water 
again  has  had  a  good  deal  to  do  with  washing  these  drift 
soils  about  and  sorting  them.    Most  of  the  gravel  and  sand 


THE   ORIGIN  OF  THE   SOIL  7 

banks  are  the  result  of  the  water  sorting  out  the  finer  parti- 
cles, carrying  them  away,  and  depositing  the  coarser  sand 
and  gravel  in  depressions. 

The  wind  has  had  a  good  deal  to  do  with  transporting  soil. 
We  have  seen  the  wind  drifting  snow  in  the  winter  time. 
Just  so  it  drifts  soil  in  many  parts  of  the  world.  The  ma- 
terial carried  is  usually  sand  and  forms  sand  dunes.  Along 
the  southern  border  of  Lake  Michigan  in  Indiana  are  many 


I.       LAND    DAMAGED    BY   WASHING 
By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station 


large  sand  dunes  which  have  buried  considerable  areas  of 
forest.  Such  land  in  its  present  condition  is  worthless  for 
farming  purposes.  All  wind-carried  soils,  however,  are  not 
worthless.  In  some  parts  of  this  country  there  are  large  areas 
composed  of  very  fine  particles,  quite  deep  and  fertile.  These 
wind-formed  soils  are  called  loess  soils.  They  are  found 
mostly  west  of  the  Mississippi  River. 

We  should  notice  here  that  the  soil  is  likely  to  be  washed 
away.  Some  soils  wash  more  than  others.  Soils  composed  of 
very  fine  particles  wash  most  readily,  because  the  rain  water 


8  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

does  not  soak  into  them  quickly  but  accumulates  on  the  sur- 
face and  runs  off  in  little  streams,  carrying  the  fine  top  soil 
with  it.  This  is  very  bad  for  the  farmer,  for  it  is  the  very 
best  part  of  his  land  which  is  being  carried  away.  In  some 
places  hundreds  of  acres  of  land  have  been  ruined  by  washing. 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  MAKE-UP  OF  THE  SOIL 

Kinds  of  Soil. — If  we  take  a  small  quantity  of  soil  in  our 
hand  and  look  at  it  carefully,  we  shall  be  able  to  see  with  the 
naked  eye  that  it  is  made  up  of  small  particles  which  look  like 
little  stones.  These  particles  are  pieces  of  decayed  rock  and 
range  in  size  from  those  easily  seen  down  to  the  minute  pieces 
which  appear  to  us  as  dust.  The  bulk  of  the  soil,  unless  it  be 
muck,  is  made  up  of  these  small  particles  or  grains.  Besides 
these  small  grains  of  rock  there  are  many  particles  which 
seem  to  be  pieces  of  roots,  stems  or  leaves,  and  such  they  are. 
The  rock  particles  are  called  the  mineral  matter  of  the  soil 
and  the  pieces  of  roots,  stems  and  leaves  the  organic  matter. 
In  muck  soils  the  organic  matter  predominates. 

When  the  rock  particles  are  large  enough  to  be  seen  easily 
they  are  called  sand.  The  very  fine  dust-like  particles  are 
called  silt  and  clay,  the  very  finest  being  clay.  It  takes  a  mi- 
croscope to  see  the  finest  sand  grains  and  to  tell  the  silt  from 
the  clay.  When  the  sand  grains  are  quite  prominent  the  soil 
is  a  sandy  soil.  If  no  sand  particles  can  be  seen  and  the  soil 
is  quite  floury  when  crushed,  it  is  clay.  Now,  when  the  sand, 
silt  and  clay  particles  are  mixed  and  not  many  sand  particles 
can  be  made  out,  we  have  a  loam  soil.  We  have  various 
names  for  soils,  such  as  sandy,  light  sandy  loam,  sandy  loam, 
loam,  clay  loam,  heavy  clay  loam,  and  clay,  all  depending 

9 


10  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

upon  the  proportions  of  sand,  clay  and  silt  in  the  soil.  The 
sandy  loam,  loam,  and  clay  loam  are  the  best  soils  for  gen- 
eral purposes. 

We  must  not  forget  that  muck  is  called  a  soil,  but  it  is  not  a 
soil  like  those  mentioned  above,  for  it  is  made  principally  from 
decayed  stems  and  leaves.  The  sand  and  clay  in  it  have  been 
carried  in  by  the  water  which  stood  on,  or  ran  over,  the  swamp 
or  lake  before  it  was  drained.  If  you  were  to  take  some  dry 
muck,  weigh  it  and  burn  it  and  then  weigh  the  ashes,  you 
would  find  that  from  two-thirds  to  three-fourths  of  its  weight 
had  burned  away.  If  you  were  to  burn  a  loam  soil,  you 
would  lose  hardly  one-tenth  of  its  weight,  while  there  would 
be  still  less  loss  from  sandy  and  clayey  soils,  showing  that 
these  soils  do  not  have  much  organic  matter  in  them.  Muck 
soils  are  sometimes  called  humus  soils  and  the  vegetable 
matter  in  sands,  loams  and  clays  is  called  the  humus.  Real 
humus  is  vegetable  matter  so  completely  decayed  that  one 
cannot  tell  what  it  was  like  at  first.  It  is  very  important  that 
soils  have  a  good  supply  of  humus,  as  we  shall  soon  point  out. 
Most  farmers  are  anxious  to  increase  the  amount  of  humus 
in  their  soils,  and  try  to  do  so  by  hauling  manure  on  the  fields 
and  by  plowing  under  green  crops  like  rye  or  clover,  or  the 
stubble  from  any  of  the  farm  crops. 

Plant  Food  in  the  Soil. — Although  the  soil  may  be  made 
up  of  what  appear  to  be  particles  of  rock  with  a  few  pieces  of 
rotten  roots  and  stems  mixed  with  them,  it  contains  the  sub- 
stances necessary  to  make  plants  grow  and  develop.  There 
are  about  thirteen  substances  which  seem  to  be  more  or  less 
necessary  for  the  plant,  namely:  hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen, 
phosphorus  (phosphoric  acid),  potassium  (potash),  calcium 
(lime),    magnesium,    iron,    sulphur,    sodium,    silicon,    and 


THE   MAKE-UP  OF  THE   SOIL  11 

chlorine.  The  humus  of  the  soil  contains  a  great  deal  of 
carbon,  but  the  plant  gets  its  carbon  from  the  air  through  the 
pores  on  the  leaves.  Besides  the  above,  there  are  some  other 
substances  found  in  the  plant  which  come  from  the  soil. 

The  substances  mentioned  above  are  called  elements  of 
plant  food.  They  are  dissolved  in  the  water  in  the  soil  and 
enter  the  plant  through  the  roots  and  are  carried  slowly  up  to 
the  leaves.  In  the  leaves  they  are  acted  upon  by  the  sunshine 
and  are  united  in  various  ways  with  each  other  and  the  car- 
bon of  the  air  to  make  the  different  compounds  like  starch, 
sugar,  fat  and  protein  which  are  found  in  the  plant.  Hydro- 
gen and  oxygen  united  form  water,  but  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and 
carbon  combined  make  starch,  sugar,  and  cellulose,  the  last  of 
which  forms  the  woody  part  of  the  plant.  Rankness  of  growth 
indicates  an  abundance  of  nitrogen;  a  pale  color  of  the  leaves 
shows  need  of  iron;  lime,  phosphorus,  and  magnesium  appear 
in  the  seeds  quite  largely;  strong  stems  and  a  good  heading 
out  and  earing  out  of  grain  plants  show  a  sufficiency  of  pot- 
ash. When  the  different  compounds  have  been  formed  in 
the  leaves  they  have  to  be  moved  to  other  parts  of  the  plant, 
for  instance,  in  the  potato  plant  starch  is  moved  down  to  the 
potato.  Potash,  magnesia,  lime,  and  chlorine  are  important 
in  these  movements.  Nitrogen,  sulphur,  and  phosphorus  are 
necessary  for  life  processes  to  go  on  in  the  plant.  The  part 
which  sodium  and  silicon  play  in  the  plant  has  not,  as  yet, 
been  fully  determined.  In  some  cases  they  appear  to  be 
necessary,  while  in  other  cases  they  are  not. 

It  has  been  shown  by  analysis  that  most  soils  contain 
enough  of  the  different  plant  foods  to  furnish  crops  for  hun- 
dreds of  years.  Professor  King,  of  Wisconsin,  has  demon- 
strated that  there  is  enough  potash  in  the  surface  soil  one 


12  AGRICULTURE    FOR   COMMON   SCHOOLS 

foot  deep  to  last  1,521  years,  magnesia  to  last  3,300  years, 
phosphoric  acid  to  last  542  years,  and  nitrogen  to  last  about 
250  years,  when  properly  farmed.  This  is  doubtless  true  of 
a  fairly  fertile  soil.  Although  there  are  such  large  quantities 
of  these  different  substances  in  the  soil  naturally,  the  plant 
very  often  suffers  from  a  lack  of  them.  This  is  because  they 
are  bound  up  in  the  soil  in  such  a  way  that  the  plant  cannot 
make  use  of  them.  In  such  cases  it  is  necessary  to  apply  them 
to  the  soil  in  the  shape  of  fertilizers,  or  steps  must  be  taken 
to  make  what  is  in  the  soil  available.  The  plant  foods  most 
often  needed  are  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  potash,  and  lime. 
We  shall  speak  of  these  again. 

A  great  many  persons  believe  that  a  chemist  can  analyze 
a  soil  and  tell  just  what  that  soil  will  grow  and  what  kind  of 
fertilizers  it  needs.  This  is  a  mistaken  notion.  There  are 
two  kinds  of  analysis.  One  is  a  chemical  analysis.  In  such 
an  analysis  the  different  kinds  of  plant  food  are  determined 
and  the  amount  of  each.  There  is  usually  found  to  be 
plenty  for  all  the  needs  of  the  crop.  However,  such  an  anal- 
ysis cannot  determine  how  much  of  these  substances  the 
plant  can  use  when  it  grows  in  the  soil,  so  that  certain  ele- 
ments must  sometimes  be  supplied  in  the  form  of  compost  or 
manures,  even  though  the  analysis  shows  an  abundant  supply 
in  the  soil.  The  other  kind  of  analysis  is  called  mechanical. 
In  this  analysis  the  soil  grains  are  separated  into  groups  of 
various  sizes  and  the  amount  of  organic  matter  is  deter- 
mined. Such  an  analysis  tells  something  about  the  ability  of 
the  soil  to  hold  water,  and  the  ease  with  which  it  can  be 
drained.  It  also  gives  an  idea  of  how  easy  a  soil  will  be  to 
cultivate.  If  one  knows  something  about  the  kind  of  land  on 
which  different  farm  crops  grow  well,  he  can  tell  from  this 


THE    MAKE-UP    OF   THE    SOIL  13 

analysis  about  what  crops  will  do  well  on  this  land.  How- 
ever, neither  of  these  analyses  is  a  perfect  guide,  and  the  only 
way  to  find  out  which  crops  will  do  well  and  which  kind  of 
plant  food  is  lacking  is  to  test  the  soil  with  different  crops  and 
different  fertilizers. 

Life  in  the  Soil. — We  are  apt  to  think  of  the  mineral 
and  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil  as  being  dead  substances. 
However,  there  is  a  real  life  in  the  soil.  There  are  many  kinds 
of  plants  too  small  to  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye  living  in  the 
dead  organic  matter  and  on  the  soil  grains.  These  are  called 
soU  bacteriay  and  many  kinds  are  known.  Each  kind  has  a 
work  of  its  own  to  do.  We  do  not  know  yet  the  real  use  of 
a  great  many  of  these  bacteria.  We  know  that  there  are  some 
kinds  whose  business  it  is  to  make  the  vegetable  matter  decay 
and  put  the  substances  of  which  it  was  composed  in  shape  to 
be  used  again  for  plant  food.  Other  bacteria  catch  nitrogen 
as  it  circulates  through  the  soil  as  air  and  hold  it  for  the  use 
of  plants.  Doubtless  we  have  all  seen  the  little  knobs  on  the 
roots  of  red  clover,  beans,  or  some  othet  plant  that  belongs  to 
that  group  of  plants  which  has  blossoms  like  the  garden  bean 
or  pea.  Such  plants  are  called  legumes.  The  knobs  on  the 
roots  are  called  nodules  (See  Fig.  20).  In  these  nodules  are 
many  bacteria  which  take  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  give  it 
to  the  plant,  and  also  build  it  up  into  their  own  cells.  (A 
bacterium  has  but  one  cell.)  While  the  bacteria  furnish 
nitrogen  to  the  plant,  the  plant  gives  the  bacteria  such  food 
as  starch  and  sugar  to  live  on.  So  it  is  that  the  plants  and 
the  bacteria  are  helpful  to  each  other.  When  the  clover  or 
other  legume  dies,  there  is  left  for  the  next  crop  a  great  deal 
of  nitrogen  in  the  soil.  As  nitrogen  is  a  costly  plant  food  and 
very  important,  the  farmer  is  always  anxious  to  have  a  good 


14  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

clover  crop  or  a  good  crop  of  some  other  legume.  It  is  the 
bacteria  which  make  the  clover  crop  such  a  desirable  one. 
Bacteria  do  not  live  on  the  roots  of  any  plants  other  than 
legumes.  There  are  other  bacteria,  which  do  not  live  on  the 
roots  of  any  kind  of  plants  and  which  catch  nitrogen  and 
hold  it  for  the  use  of  plants.  All  bacteria  which  have  any- 
thing to  do  with  gathering  nitrogen  are  called  nitrifying  bac- 
teria. They  require  proper  conditions  of  temperature,  moist- 
ure, air,  and  food  to  do  their  work  well.  The  farmer  who 
has  ground  well  drained,  manured,  and  cultivated  helps  the 
bacteria  to  do  their  work. 

There  are  some  bacteria  which  work  well  when  the  soil  is 
too  wet  to  cultivate,  but  they  are  not  the  helpful  kind.  In- 
stead of  gathering  nitrogen  they  lay  hold  on  those  substances 
in  the  soil  which  contain  nitrogen  and  let  it  loose  so  that  it 
escapes  from  the  soil  as  a  gas.  Such  bacteria  are  called  deni- 
trifying bacteria.  The  farmer  who  does  not  have  his  land 
well  drained  and  cultivated  helps  this  kind  of  bacteria  to 
work,  and  they  do  him  no  good. 


CHAPTER  III 
PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  SOILS 

By  physical  properties  are  meant  weight,  color,  tempera- 
ture, and  the  way  in  which  air  and  water  circulate  through 
the  soil. 

Weight. — The  weight  of  a  soil  depends  upon  what  it  is 
derived  from.  A  cubic  foot  of  sandy  soil  will  weigh  more 
than  a  cubic  foot  of  loam,  and  a  cubic  foot  of  loam  is  heavier 
than  a  like  amount  of  muck.  The  sandy  soil  is  composed 
almost  entirely  of  hard  flinty  or  quartz  rock  particles,  which 
have  very  little  vegetable  matter  among  them.  The  loam 
contains,  besides  the  quartz  particles,  many  particles  of  rock 
not  so  hard  nor  so  heavy.  The  loam  has  also  much  more 
organic  matter  in  it  than  there  is  in  the  sand.  Muck  is  rather 
light,  because  it  is  made  up  so  largely  of  organic  matter  and 
has  so  little  of  rock  particles.  A  cubic  foot  of  dry  soil  will 
weigh  about  as  follows:  sandy  about  95  to  100  pounds,  clay 
70  to  80  pounds,  loam  65  to  75  pounds,  and  muck  30  to  40 
pounds.  Sandy  soils  are  the  heaviest  of  all  soils  by  weight, 
but  farmers  speak  of  them  as  being  light  because  they  are 
easily  plowed  and  cultivated;  clay  soils  are  said  to  be  heavy 
because  they  are  difficult  to  plow  and  cultivate. 

Color. — The  color  of  soils  is  variable  and  is  not  a  very 

certain  sign  of  their  fertility.    Sands  are  generally  grayish  or 

yellowish.     Clays  may  be  whitish,  yellow,  red  or  bluish. 

15 


16  AGRICULTURE    FOR   COMMON    SCHOOLS 

These  colors  are  generally  caused  by  some  chemical  element 
in  the  soil,  usually  some  form  of  iron.  Loams  and  mucks  are 
always  dark  colored,  owing  to  the  large  amount  of  organic 
matter  in  them.  We  shall  see  that  color  has  something  to  do 
with  the  temperature  of  a  soil. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  of  a  soil  is  very  im- 
portant, since  it  influences  the  sprouting  of  seeds  and  the 
growth  of  plants.  Most  farm  seeds  germinate  best  at  tem- 
peratures between  70  and  80°  F.  Furthermore,  their  best 
growth  takes  place  at  temperatures  equally  high.  Such  seeds 
and  plants  as  corn,  melons  and  cucumbers  require  even  higher 
temperatures.  Dark  colored  soils  are  warmer  than  light 
colored,  because  the  dark  color  absorbs  more  heat  from  the 
sun.  Such  a  soil  may  be,  according  to  Professor  Brooks,  of 
the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College,  as  much  as  eight 
degrees  warmer  during  the  hours  of  sunshine  than  a  light- 
colored  soil.  A  soil  which  has  rather  coarse  grains  will  warm 
up  more  quickly  than  one  having  very  small  grains,  because 
the  coarse  particles  will  draw  the  heat  from  the  sun  better 
than  fine  ones.  This  is  one  reason  why  sandy  soils  are 
warmer  than  others  and  are  desirable  for  early  vegetables.  A 
dry  soil  is  warmer  than  a  wet  one,  hence  drainage  aids  in 
warming  a  soil.  A  soil  having  a  good  deal  of  humus  in  it 
will  tend  to  be  cool  because  the  organic  matter  holds  water. 
However,  the  dark  color  of  such  soils  by  absorbing  heat  has 
a  tendency  to  offset  the  cooling  effect  of  the  water.  When 
land  slopes  to  the  east,  south,  or  south-west,  it  is  naturally 
warmer  than  land  which  slopes  to  the  north  or  north-west, 
because  the  sun's  rays  fall  more  nearly  straight  on  it. 

Aeration. — It  is  necessary  for  the  good  of  the  plant  that 
air  circulate  through  the  soil.     The  air  furnishes  oxygen  to 


PHYSICAL   PROPERTIES   OF   SOILS  17 

the  soil  and  this  is  useful  in  many  ways.  Oxygen  is  necessary 
for  the  sprouting  of  seeds  and  for  the  healthy  growth  of  the 
roots,  and  it  aids  in  many  chemical  changes  in  the  soil  whereby 
plant  food  is  made  ready.  Bacteria  must  have  it  for  their 
life  and  work.  In  any  soil  there  are  spaces  without  number 
among  the  soil  grains.  These  spaces  are  called  pores.  If 
the  grains  are  coarse,  the  pores  are  large;  if  fine,  the  pores 
are  small,  but  more  numerous.  When  these  spaces  are  not 
filled  with  water  they  are  occupied  by  air.  This  air  is 
called  soil  air.  If  it  did  not  move  it  would  become  foul  just 
like  the  air  in  a  closed  room  and  just  as  injurious  to  the  life 
of  the  soil  as  the  foul  air  of  the  room  is  to  persons  in  it.  The 
movement  of  this  air  is  brought  about  by  the  suction  of  the 
winds  which  blow  over  the  land.  This  draws  out  some  of  the 
air  in  the  soil  and  permits  other  air  to  enter.  Where  land  is 
drained  by  tile  ditches  there  is  a  movement  through  the  lines 
of  tile.  When  the  land  is  soaked  no  air  can  circulate  because 
the  pores  are  filled.  Soil  having  large  pores,  and  soil  culti- 
vated until  it  is  loose,  permit  a  freer  circulation  of  air  than 
compact  soil  with  small  pores.  A  too  free  circulation  is  not 
desirable,  because  it  will  dry  the  soil  too  much  and  will  also 
cause  the  vegetable  matter  to  be  burned  out  too  fast. 

Water  in  the  Soil. — The  water  in  the  soil  has  several  im- 
portant parts  to  play.  1.  It  keeps  continually  dissolving 
small  amounts  of  the  soil  grains.  This  dissolved  material 
furnishes  the  ash  of  plants.  2.  By  the  constant  evaporation 
of  water  from  the  leaves  the  temperature  of  the  plant  is  kept 
from  rising  too  high  in  hot  weather.  3.  By  the  movement  of 
water  in  the  soil,  of  which  we  shall  soon  speak,  the  dissolved 
material  is  brought  in  contact  with  the  roots  of  the  plant. 
4.  All  the  live  cells  of  the  plant  are  made  up  largely  of  water. 


Qui     O 


PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  SOILS  19 

This  water  furnishes  a  means  for  the  carrying  on  of  the  Hfe 
processes  of  the  plant.  5.  Some  water  is  actually  built  into 
the  tissues  of  the  plant.  Even  though  a  piece  of  vegetable 
matter  seems  quite  dry,  there  is  still  moisture  in  it.  This 
may  be  easily  noticed  in  the  burning  of  a  match. 

Kinds  of  Water  in  the  Soil. — Even  though  the  soil  be  as 
dry  as  the  dust  iti  the  road,  it  has  moisture  in  it.  If  some 
of  this  dry  soil  were  heated  at  a  boiling  temperature  for 
two  hours  it  would  be  found  that  the  soil  had  lost  weight. 
The  moisture  contained  in  such  dry  soil  is  called  hygroscopic 
moisture.  It  exists  there  as  a  very  thin  film  around  each  soil 
grain.  If  you  can  think  of  a  marble  inside  of  a  soap  bubble 
and  the  bubble  shrinking  down  upon  the  marble  you  will 
have  a  good  idea  of  how  the  hygroscopic  moisture  exists  in 
the  soil.  Plants  growing  in  the  soil  cannot  make  any  direct 
use  of  hygroscopic  moisture. 

When  the  soil  is  in  good  condition  to  cultivate  it  contains 
considerable  moisture.  The  films  around  the  soil  grains  are 
thicker  and  some  of  the  small  pores  between  the  grains  are 
filled  with  water.  Such  water  is  called  capillary  water  and  is 
useful  to  plants.  When  all  the  little  spaces  are  filled  with 
water  and  the  soil  is  so  wet  that  water  is  almost  ready  to  drip 
from  it,  the  soil  is  said  to  be  saturated.  In  this  condition  it  is 
too  wet  for  farm  crops  to  grow  well.  It  must  never  be  stirred 
when  it  is  so  wet.  Soil  is  in  the  best  condition  to  farm  when 
it  contains  about  one-half  of  the  amount  of  moisture  which 
it  contains  when  saturated. 

The  water  which  oozes  out  of  the  soil  and  runs  away  in  the 
tile  drains  is  called  free  water  or  hydrostatic  water.  The  water 
which  runs  down  the  slopes  of  the  field  without  soaking  into 
the  ground  is  also  free  water  and  is  generally  called  surface 


20  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

water.  Free  water  is  not  only  of  little  use  to  the  plants,  but 
instead  it  carries  away  particles  of  rich  soil  when  it  runs  off 
the  surface,  or  dissolved  plant  food  when  it  escapes  in  drains. 

Capillary  Movement  of  Water. — In  most  soils  there  is 
a  point  more  or  less  distant,  usually  six  to  thirty  feet,  from  the 
surface  where  the  spaces  between  the  soil  grains  are  filled 
with  water,  that  is,  the  soil  is  saturated.  This  is  called  the 
standing  water  or  water  table,  and  it  extends  beneath  the  sur- 
face at  variable  depths  as  a  sheet  of  water.  It  is  this  water 
table  that  we  drill  or  dig  into  when,  in  putting  down  a  well, 
we  say  we  have  struck  a  *'vein''  of  water.  The  water  table 
follows  the  general  outline  of  the  surface  soil  and  has  its  high 
and  low  places  just  like  the  land. 

When  the  soil  near  the  surface  begins  to  get  dry,  water 
creeps  up  over  the  particles  of  soil  in  the  subsoil  toward  the 
surface  and  tends  to  renew  the  water  there.  This  is  called 
capillary  movement.  The  cause  of  the  loss  at  the  surface  is 
the  drying  action  of  the  wind  and  sun  called  evaporation,  and 
the  loss  by  evaporation  from  the  leaves  of  plants  called  trans- 
piration. Now  the  water  rarely  moves  up  fast  enough  to  keep 
up  the  supply  at  the  surface,  so  that  the  ground  gets  quite  dry 
after  a  time,  but  by  cultivation  we  can  help  to  keep  up  the 
supply.    We  shall  explain  this  presently. 

Capillary  movement  takes  place  differently  in  different 
kinds  of  soil.  In  coarse  grained  soils  like  sandy  soils  it  moves 
faster,  but  not  through  so  great  a  distance.  A  clay  or  loam 
subsoil  is  the  best  to  supply  moisture  to  crops  in  dry  seasons, 
because  in  such  soils  the  capillary  water  will  move  through 
a  greater  distance  than  in  any  other  soils.  This  is  because  the 
grains  in  these  soils  are  quite  small  and  the  films  on  their 
surfaces  are  comparatively  strong.    These  films  make  a  strong 


PHYSICAL   PROPERTIES   OF   SOILS  21 

pull  on  the  free  water  below  and  can  raise  it  to  quite  a  height. 
This  capillary  movement  does  not  necessarily  always  move 
upward.  In  general  it  moves  toward  the  point  where  the  soil 
is  the  dryest.  If  the  ground  becomes  quite  dry  and  there 
comes  a  heavy  shower,  the  capillary  movement  may  be 
downward,  the  tendency  being  always  to  equalize  the  thick- 
ness of  the  film  around  the  adjoining  soil  grains. 

Percolation  of  Water. — By  percolation  is  meant  the  down- 
ward movement  of  free  water  through  the  soil.  Some  of  the 
spaces  between  the  soil  grains  are  too  large  to  hold  water  by 
capillarity,  so  that  whatever  water  comes  to  them  is  allowed 
to  pass  on.  In  this  way  water  which  falls  on  the  land  as  rain 
soaks  into  the  soil  and  moves  downward  until  it  comes  to  the 
water  table.  It  is  plain  that  if  the  soil  particles  are  coarse 
the  spaces  between  them  will  be  larger  than  if  the  particles 
are  fine,  so  that  in  the  coarse  soil  water  can  percolate  more 
readily  than  in  the  fine-grained  soil.  For  this  reason  sandy 
soils  allow  the  rains  to  soak  into  them  and  drain  away  more 
easily  than  clay  soils.  The  way  in  which  water  percolates 
through  soils  determines  the  amount  of  tile  draining  that  is 
needed.  Clay  soils  need  more  draining  than  any  other, 
because  water  moves  through  them  very  slowly. 

Power  of  Soils  to  Retain  Moisture. — When  soils  have 
been  saturated  and  then  allowed  to  drain  without  any  evap- 
oration from  the  surface  they  are  still  found  to  hold  different 
amounts  of  water.  Taking  sandy,  loamy,  and  clayey  soils  it 
will  be  found  that  this  amount  will  vary  in  the  order  that  the 
soils  are  named,  the  sandy  holding  the  least  and  the  clayey 
the  most.  The  amount  held  is  partly  dependent  upon  the 
size  of  the  soil  grains  and  partly  upon  the  amount  of  organic 
matter  in  the  soil,  so  that  loam  often  holds  more  than  clay. 


22  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

The  sands  have  the  coarsest  particles  and  the  clays  the  finest, 
while  the  loams  have  fine  particles  and  the  most  organic  mat- 
ter. Muck  soils,  being  so  largely  vegetable  matter,  hold  more 
water  than  any  other  kind.  Soils  that  are  loose  hold  more 
water  than  compact  soils.  However,  some  of  the  coarser 
sands  hold  more  water  when  packed  than  when  loose.  When 
a  soil  is  packed  the  very  finest  particles  are  forced  into  the 
smaller  capillary  spaces  and  so  shut  up  some  of  the  space  that 
might  be  occupied  by  water.  This  is  the  case  in  packed  clays 
and  loams.  When  a  coarse  soil  is  packed  the  smaller  parti- 
cles are  forced  into  those  smaller  spaces  which  are  too  large  to 
hold  capillary  water,  making  them  smaller  and  enabling  them 
to  hold  more  moisture  than  if  they  were  left  loose.  As  an 
illustration  of  how  much  water  per  cubic  foot  loose  soils  will 
hold  we  may  take  the  following  figures:  sandy,  24  pounds; 
clay,  28  pounds;  loam,  32  pounds;  muck,  40  pounds.  If  we 
take  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  water  to  be  62.4  pounds, 
then  an  inch  of  rainfall  will  weigh  one-twelfth  of  62.4  pounds, 
or  5.2  pounds.  Then  if  the  figures  above  be  divided  by  5.2 
we  have  the  following  number  of  inches  of  rainfall  for  a  cubic 
foot  of  each  soil:  sandy,  4.6,  clay,  5.4,  loam,  6.1,  and  muck, 
7.7.  Since  all  soils  vary  somewhat  the  above  figures  are  cor- 
rect only  for  the  particular  soils  tested,  but  they  do  show  how 
the  kinds  of  soils  differ.  We  must  remember  that  the  above 
figures  show  what  is  in  the  surface  foot.  The  second  and  third 
and  fourth  foot  will  contain  about  as  much,  usually  a  little 
less,  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  soil  particles,  so  that  the 
total  amount  of  water  held  in  the  soil  is  a  great  deal.  The 
roots  of  plants  feed  mostly  in  the  first  two  feet.  If  we  could 
save  for  use  all  the  water  that  a  soil  will  hold  we  should  have 
plenty  for  all  the  needs  of  the  crop.    However,  we  have  said 


PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  SOILS  23 

that  only  about  one-half  of  the  total  that  the  soil  will  hold  is 
desirable  at  any  one  time.  We  shall  learn  something  more 
in  another  chapter  about  holding  the  water  for  the  use  of  the 
crops. 

Movements  of  the  Plant  Food. — We  have  said  that  the 
plant  gets  from  the  soil  all  its  food  except  carbon.  We  have 
also  said  that  the  water  in  the  soil  is  continually  dissolving 
small  amounts  of  the  soil  grains  and  other  chemical  com- 
pounds in  the  soil.  All  food  for  the  plant  must  be  in  solu- 
tion, that  is,  dissolved  in  the  soil  water.  The  carbon,  as  car- 
bon dioxide,  is  a  gas  in  the  atmosphere  and  gets  into  the 
plant  through  the  pores  on  the  leaves.  The  dissolved  ma- 
terials have  a  tendency  to  distribute  themselves  equally 
through  the  soil  water.  The  same  thing  happens  if  we  put 
a  lump  of  salt  in  a  vessel  of  water.  Although  we  slip  it  down 
in  one  corner  of  the  vessel  and  do  not  stir  the  water  it  will  not 
be  long  before  the  water  on  the  opposite  side  will  taste  salty. 
The  dissolved  salt  has  spread  throughout  all  the  water  in  the 
vessel.  This  is  called  dijfiision.  This  diffusion  and  the 
capillary  movement  of  the  water  in  the  soil  bring  the  dis- 
solved material  to  the  roots  of  the  plant  and  the  root  hairs 
near  the  tip  of  each  rootlet  take  in  the  plant  food  and  pass  it 
on  through  the  roots,  stem  and  branches  of  the  plant  to  the 
leaves,  where  it  is  worked  up  into  various  products  such  as  the 
plant  uses  to  build  up  its  structure  and  also  to  store  away. 
The  root  hairs  are  tiny  thin-walled  cells.  The  cell  wall  does 
not  have  any  openings  in  it  that  one  has  ever  been  able  to 
find,  but  still  water  and  the  dissolved  materials  pass  through 
it.  This  passage  through  a  cell-wall,  or  membrane,  is  called 
osmosis.  It  is  a  kind  of  diffusion.  Inside  the  plant  the 
material  has  to  pass  from  one  cell  to  another  by  osmosis. 


CHAPTER  IV 
DRAINAGE  AND  IRRIGATION 

From  what  has  already  been  said  it  is  clear  that  the  mois- 
ture in  the  soil  is  an  important  item.  If  a  soil  has  too  much 
moisture  we  try  to  get  rid  of  the  surplus  by  drainage;  if  it 
has  too  little,  we  apply  water  to  the  soil,  that  is,  irrigate  it. 

Kinds  of  Drains. — All  drains  may  be  grouped  in  two 
classes — open  and  closed  drains.    Of  the  open  drains  we  have 

(1)  the  surface  drain,  made  by  plowing  a  furrow  up  through 
the  low  place  in  a  field  to  allow  the  water  to  run  away. 
Sometimes  these  surface  drains  are  made  by  plowing  the 
field  in  narrow  *' lands,"  thus  having  many  *'dead"  furrows. 

(2)  The  open  ditch.  This  differs  from  the  open  drain  only 
by  being  wider  and  deeper.  The  surface  drain  lasts  only  one 
year  or  until  the  field  is  plowed  again.  The  open  ditch  lasts 
usually  for  several  years.  Muck  beds  are  often  drained  by 
open  ditches.  In  many  parts  of  our  country  there  are  large 
open  ditches  put  through  by  the  authority  of  the  county  or 
state.  These  extend  for  miles  in  length  and  serve  as  an  out- 
let for  all  other  kinds  of  drains.  They  are  frequently  called 
county  ditches.  Sometimes  they  are  called  dredge  ditches, 
because  a  dredge  has  been  used  for  removing  the  dirt  and 
making  the  channel. 

By  closed   drain   or   under-drain    is   meant  that  kind  of 

drain  in  which  a  trench  or  ditch  has  first  been  dug  and  some- 

24 


DRAINAGE    AND   IRRIGATION  25 

thing  put  into  the  bottom  of  the  trench  to  form  a  passage-way 
for  the  water  and  then  the  trench  filled  up  again.  1.  The 
most  common  closed  drain  is  the  one  in  which  tile  is  placed 
in  the  bottom  of  the  trench  to  carry  the  water.  2.  A  box  with 
open  ends  is  frequently  used  to  carry  off  the  water.  The 
box  may  be  square  or  triangular.  3.  Flat  stones  may  be 
arranged  so  as  to  make  a  covered  way  for  the  water.  4.  Two 
poles  may  be  laid  along  the  sides  of  the  bottom  close  together 
and  a  third  one  put  on  the  top  of  these  to  make  an  open  pas- 
sage. The  poles  will  soon  sink  into  the  mud  and  stop  up  the 
passage-way.  5.  The  bottom  of  the  trench  may  be  filled  with 
brush  and  these  covered  with  straw  or  pieces  of  sod  to  pre- 
vent the  loose  dirt  from  washing  in.  The  trench  is  then 
filled  with  dirt.  All  forms  of  under-drains  described,  except 
tile,  are  likely  to  be  temporary  and  poor,  and  hardly  pay  for 
the  labor  of  making  them. 

There  are  two  great  objections  to  open  drains.  1.  Open 
drains  use  up  a  good  deal  of  land  on  which  no  crop  is  grown. 
If  an  open  ditch  is  ten  feet  wide  it  does  not  need  to  be  very 
long  to  use  up  an  acre  of  land.  Then,  too,  besides  the  open 
part  there  are  the  two  banks  on  which  we  cannot  raise  any- 
thing. If  such  a  ditch  were  tiled  with  large  tiles  it  could  be 
filled  up  and  crops  grown  on  it.  2.  Open  ditches  are  always 
getting  filled  up  with  grass,  weeds,  brush  and  mud.  If  hogs 
can  get  to  an  open  ditch  thej  soon  work  down  the  banks  and' 
fill  it  up.  If  open  ditches  are  not  kept  cleaned  out  they  are 
soon  worse  than  useless. 

When  Drainage  is  Necessary. — Almost  all  of  our  farm 
soils  are  helped  by  drainage.  Only  sandy  soils  and  those 
which  have  a  gravelly  or  sandy  subsoil  do  not  need  drain- 
age.   Of  course  the  soil  in  the  far  west  in  what  is  called  the 


26  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

arid  region  does  not  need  drainage.  On  the  contrary,  it 
needs  watering.  1.  All  over  the  United  States  there  are  little 
ponds,  swamps  and  marshes  which  need  drainage.  It  is  said 
that  there  are  six  hundred  million  acres  of  such  land  in  the 
United  States.    This  area,  however,  is  growing  smaller  every 


3.      CROP    FAILURE   DUE   TO    LACK   OF   DRAINAGE 
By  courtesy  of  Prof.  G.  I.  Christie,  Purdue  University 

year,  because  great  drainage  operations  are  being  carried  on 
everywhere.  Land  values  have  increased  so  much  that  it 
pays  to  drain  land  now  that  a  few  years  ago  was  thought  to 
be  worthless.  2.  Besides  this  swamp  land  there  is  much  farm 
land  where  there  are  low  places  in  which  the  water  stands 
a  long  time  in  the  spring  and  after  heavy  rains,  making  the 
farmer  late  in  getting  out  his  crops,  and  often  drowning  out 
the  crop  after  it  is -planted.    3.  In  almost  any  field  there  is 


DRAINAGE   AND  IRRIGATION  27 

a  low  strip  of  land  upon  which  the  water  from  the  higher 
ground  runs,  forming  a  natural  drain  for  the  surface  water. 
Such  "draws,"  as  they  are  called,  should  be  drained.  4. 
Much  of  our  clay  land  dries  off  so  slowly,  because  the  water 
cannot  soak  down  through  it  quickly,  that  it  should  be 
drained.  A  tile  ditch  through  a  knoll  is  often  beneficial. 
5.  Along  hillsides  it  frequently  happens  that  the  water  oozes 
out  very  much  as  it  does  from  a  spring.  A  drain  put  length- 
wise along  the  foot  of  a  hill  will  be  very  helpful.  6.  When 
such  plants  as  sedges,  rushes,  and  mosses  come  up  naturally 
on  land  it  needs  draining.  7.  Land  that  cracks  open  badly 
after  drying  out  needs  draining.  Such  land  gets  too  hard  and 
compact,  and  the  cracking  open  breaks  off  the  roots  of  plants 
growing  in  it. 

Results  of  Draining. — ^The  results  obtained  from  drain- 
ing are  many.  One  of  the  most  important  is  the  greater 
amount  of  soil  made  useful  to  the  plants.  When  plants  grow 
on  wet  soils  they  nearly  always  have  their  roots  near  the  sur- 
face. The  plant  then  draws  its  food  from  the  surface  soil. 
None  of  our  farm  crops  will  grow  with  their  roots  extending  into 
water.  When  the  subsoil  is  quite  wet  early  in  the  season,  the 
roots  all  form  in  the  upper  layers  of  the  soil.  Later  in  the 
season,  when  the  subsoil  gets  drier,  the  roots  do  not  follow 
down  after  the  retreating  moisture,  but  remain  near  the  sur- 
face. As  the  plant  comes  to  full  growth  it  draws  so  heavily 
upon  the  soil  for  moisture  that  the  capillary  movement  up- 
ward does  not  supply  enough  for  the  plant's  needs,  and  so  the 
plant  suffers.  Now,  had  the  land  been  drained  so  that  the 
subsoil  would  have  lost  its  surplus  moisture  early  in  the  sea- 
son, the  plant  roots  would  have  formed  lower  in  the  soil  and 
many  would  have  reached  down  three  or  four  feet  or  more. 


28  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

By  so  doing  they  could  draw  upon  the  moisture  in  the  lower 
layers  and  would  not  have  to  depend  upon  capillarity  bring- 
ing the  water  so  far.  When  we  know  that  a  corn  plant  com- 
ing into  tassel  uses  nearly  three  pounds  of  water  daily  we  see 
the  importance  of  having  moisture  convenient  for  the  plant 
roots.  Not  only  does  drainage  give  the  roots  a  larger  amount 
of  soil  from  which  to  get  moisture,  but  at  the  same  time  the 
roots  draw  plant  food  from  a  larger  amount  of  soil.  Because 
drainage  gives  access  to  more  soil,  we  say  that  it  deepens  the 
soil. 

Drainage  has  the  effect  of  warming  the  soil.  The  evap- 
orating of  water  is  a  cooling  process.  When  there  are  no 
drains  much  of  the  surface  water  has  to  evaporate.  This 
takes  a  good  deal  of  time  and  keeps  the  land  cold  and  wet. 
There  is  usually  a  difference  of  five  to  ten  degrees  between 
the  temperature  of  drained  and  undrained  soil  in  the  same 
field.  This  makes  a  decided  difference  in  the  germination 
of  seeds  and  the  growth  of  the  plants.  It  may  be  noticed  in 
fields  that  corn  comes  up  quicker  and  grows  faster  in  the 
drier  parts  of  the  field.  This  is  not  entirely  because  the  soil 
is  looser  and  richer,  but  because  it  is  warmer.  Then,  too, 
the  summer  rains  soak  quickly  into  a  drained  soil  and  are 
more  fully  used  by  the  growing  crops. 

Several  other  results  can  be  mentioned  briefly.  In  drained 
soil  bacteria  are  more  active,  making  more  plant  food 
available.  The  bacteria  cause  the  decay  of  the  manure  or 
other  organic  matter  in  soil,  so  that  we  get  more  good  from 
the  manure  applied  to  the  land.  As  the  water  finds  its  way 
through  the  soil  to  the  tiles  it  leaves  small  passage-ways. 
This  permits  the  air  to  come  into  the  soil.  We  have  seen  in 
another  chapter  that  this  is  desirable.    Furthermore,  when 


DRAINAGE    AND   IRRIGATION  29 

the  tiles  are  not  draining  they  are  filled  with  air  so  that  there 
may  be  a  circulation  of  air  through  the  soil  by  way  of  the 
tiles.  Another  advantage  in  having  the  land  drained  is  that 
it  permits  the  farmer  to  get  out  crops  earlier  in  the  spring, 
and  since  the  drained  land  is  warmer  they  grow  faster.  So 
the  farmer  with  drained  land  generally  raises  bigger  crops 
and  gets  more  returns  from  his  land.  Drained  land  is  always 
easier  to  plow  and  to  cultivate,  so  that  such  soil  is  tilled  with 
less  labor. 

How  to  Drain. — Before  beginning  to  drain  a  piece  of  land 
the  farmer  should  look  it  over  carefully  to  determine  where 
the  drain  is  to  empty  and  in  what  places  lines  of  tile  are  to 
be  laid.  Large  areas  should  be  surveyed.  Generally  there  is 
one  main  line  of  large  sized  tile  put  through  the  lowest  place 
in  the  field  where  the  most  water  naturally  runs.  This  line 
is  called  the  main.  Into  the  main  from  the  sides  run  branch 
lines  of  smaller  tile.  These  branch  lines  are  called  laterals. 
The  slope  of  the  land  toward  the  place  where  the  drain  is 
to  empty,  or  the  outlet,  is  called  the  fall.  This  should  be  at 
least  two  or  three  inches  per  one  hundred  feet,  and  five 
to  eight  inches  is  considered  about  the  best  average.  Larger 
tiles  are  generally  used  near  the  outlet  than  toward  the  upper 
end  of  the  drain.  The  tiles  in  the  laterals  are  not  so  large  as 
those  in  the  main.  The  size  of  the  tile  depends  upon  the 
extent  of  the  system,  the  amount  of  water  to  be  carried,  and 
the  fall.  Professor  Elliott,  in  Farmer's  Bulletin  187,  says  that 
the  tiles  in  the  laterals  should  be  3  or  4  inches  in  diameter  and 
that  a  5-inch  main  (and  its  laterals)  having  a  length  of  1,000 
feet  and  a  fall  of  3  inches  per  100  feet  will  drain  25.1  acres. 
In  a  complete  farm  system  of  drains  2-inch  laterals  would  be 
ample.    The  depth  to  which  the  tiles  are  put  is  not  always  the 


30  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

same,  but  usually  it  should  be  3 J  to  4  feet.  Such  depth  insures 
the  quick  drainage  of  the  surplus  water  from  that  part  of  the 
soil  in  which  the  roots  are  mostly  found. 

After  the  trench  is  dug  the  tiles  are  laid  end  to  end  in  the 
level  surface  of  the  bottom.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the 
joints  fit  closely  so  that  soil  will  not  wash  into  the  tiles  and  clog 
them  up.  After  the  tiles  are  laid  the  covering  of  them  must 
be  carefully  done,  so  that  they  are  not  displaced.  It  is  helpful 
if  an  air  vent  is  left  at  the  upper  end  of  the  line  of  tiles.  This 
is  made  by  setting  a  couple  of  tiles  on  end,  or  by  filling  up  the 
trench  at  this  point  with  small  boulders.  These  air  vents 
give  a  better  "draw"  to  the  system.  A  screen  of  some  kind 
over  the  outlet  will  prevent  the  entrance  of  rabbits  or  other 
small  animals  which  might  get  fast  and  die  and  clog  up  the 
system.  Draining  costs  from  six  dollars  to  thirty  dollars  an 
acre  and  every  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  system  in 
good  working  order. 

Irrigation. — Irrigation  is  artificially  supplying  water  to 
the  land.  It  is  practised  in  places  where  there  is  little  or 
no  rainfall.  It  is  also  used  to  some  extent  in  other  regions 
in  dry  times,  particularly  in  gardens  and  truck  fields  where 
the  crop  is  very  valuable.  Irrigation  is  used  quite  extensively 
in  rice  growing. 

Places  where  the  rainfall  is  twenty  inches  or  less  during  the 
year  are  called  arid;  if  the  rainfall  amounts  to  twenty  to 
thirty  inches,  the  region  is  said  to  be  semi-arid;  where  more 
than  thirty  inches  of  rain  falls  in  the  year  we  have  a  humid 
region.  Parts  of  the  following  states  need  irrigation :  Arizona, 
California,  Colorado,  Idaho,  Montana,  Nevada,  New  Mex- 
ico, Oregon,  Utah,  Washington,  and  Wyoming.  Of  these, 
Nevada,  Utah,  Arizona,  and  Southern  California  are  the  dry- 


DRAINAGE   AND   IRRIGATION  31 

est.  A  narrow  strip  lying  east  of  these  states  is  called  the 
semi-arid  region.  It  takes  in  parts  of  Kansas,  Nebraska, 
North  Dakota,  Oklahoma,  South  Dakota,  and  Texas.  All 
the  remainder  of  the  United  States  in  ordinary  seasons  is 
humid.  In  wet  seasons  many  parts  of  the  above-named  states 
do  not  need  irrigation.  Besides  the  states  mentioned,  irriga- 
tion for  rice  growing  is  practised  in  Georgia,  Louisiana,  North 
Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and  Texas. 

Irrigation  has  been  practised  in  the  Old  World  for  hun- 
dreds of  years.  It  seems  that  the  Egyptians  were  the  first  to 
make  use  of  this  method  of  growing  their  crops,  but  all  over 
South-western  Asia  also  are  the  remains  of  great  irrigation 
systems.  Even  to-day  millions  of  acres  are  irrigated  in  India, 
Egypt,  and  Italy,  and  it  is  extensively  practised  in  many  other 
countries  of  the  world. 

The  principal  reason  for  irrigating  is  to  supply  the  plant 
with  the  proper  amount  of  moisture  at  the  time  when  it 
needs  it.  In  the  arid  region  the  plant  needs  moisture  applied 
regularly.  In  the  semi-arid  region  it  is  sometimes  not  neces- 
sary to  apply  any  extra  water.  In  the  humid  regions  irriga- 
tion is  needed  only  in  periods  of  drouth.  It  must  be  under- 
stood that  there  is  no  definite  division  between  these  three 
large  regi®ns.  They  overlap  each  other  according  to  the 
season. 

The  amount  of  water  necessary  to  produce  a  crop  is  very 
variable.  It  depends  upon  the  soil  and  the  time  of  year  when 
the  rain  falls.  Even  in  those  sections  where  irrigation  is  car- 
ried on  most  extensively,  if  the  rain  would  fall  at  the  proper 
season  it  would  be  sufficient,  but  frequently  it  falls  during 
the  cold  time  of  the  year  when  plants  cannot  use  it.  In  parts 
of  California  it  has  been  found  possible  to  produce  good  crops 


32  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

of  wheat  with  a  rainfall  of  only  twelve  inches  per  year.  The 
fact  that  crops  can  be  produced  from  a  very  few  inches  of 
rainfall  when  it  is  properly  saved  has  led  to  what  is  called 
"dry"  farming.  This  is  carried  on  mostly  in  the  semi-arid 
region.  In  dry  farming  the  object  is  to  stir  the  ground  deeply 
so  that  it  will  take  in  all  the  rainfall  and  hold  it  for  crops. 
A  deep  loose  surface  is  kept  over  the  fields  to  prevent  any 
moisture  from  evaporating.  By  so  doing  good  crops  are  pro- 
duced where  the  rainfall  amounts  to  from  ten  to  twenty  inches 
annually.  So  in  the  application  of  water  by  irrigation  it  has 
been  found  best  to  apply  about  the  above  amount  and  then 
give  careful  cultivation  to  save  the  moisture.  The  cost  of 
irrigating  is  heavy,  so  that  farmers  try  not  to  use  more  water 
than  necessary. 

Irrigation  is  used  for  other  purposes  than  simply  to  sup- 
ply water  to  the  plants.  It  is  sometimes  used  to  carry 
dissolved  plant  food  over  the  land.  This  is  especially  true 
where  sewage  water  is  spread  over  the  fields.  The  water  in 
rivers,  and  that  from  wells,  too,  usually  has  considerable 
plant  food  dissolved  in  it  and,  when  spread  over  the  land, 
adds  fertilitv  to  it.  Commercial  fertilizers  that  are  to  be 
applied  to  a  field  are  sometimes  dissolved  in  the  irrigation 
waters  and  so  distributed. 

Another  use  of  irrigation  is  to  rid  the  land  of  "alkali." 
The  soil  on  large  areas  in  the  dry  region  of  the  West  is  filled 
with  salts  which  are  injurious  to  plants.  Such  lands  are 
called  "alkali"  lands.  It  has  been  found  that  if  enough 
water  can  be  applied  to  such  lands  to  produce  percolation 
these  salts  will  be  dissolved  and  washed  away,  and  the  land 
made  fit  for  crops.  However,  the  water  applied  must  bie 
pure  water  free  from  any  injurious  salts. 


DRAINAGE   AND   IRRIGATION  33 

It  is  impossible  to  give  here  all  the  details  about  irrigation, 
but  the  water  is  obtained  either  from  streams,  reservoirs, 
or  deep  wells.  In  our  western  states  there  are  many 
streams  which  have  their  sources  in  the  mountains  and 
are  fed  by  the  snow  on  the  peaks.  As  these  streams  flow 
out  over  the  level  country,  ditches  are  dug  leading  out  from 
the  rivers  into  the  fields  that  are  to  be  irrigated.  Smaller 
ditches  run  out  from  the  larger  ones  to  every  part  of  the 
fields.  The  banks  of  the  ditches  are  made  higher  than  the 
rest  of  the  land,  so  that  when  the  water  is  dammed  up  in 
the  ditch  bank-full,  places  called  "gates"  can  be  opened  in 
order  to  let  the  water  flow  over  the  field  until  enough  is  sup- 
plied. The  gate  can  then  be  closed  and  the  ditch  dammed  up 
further  down  and  another  gate  opened  and  more  of  the  field 
watered,  and  so  on  until  all  the  land  is  watered.  Sometimes 
the  water  is  pumped  out  of  the  big  ditches  into  the  smaller 
ones.  Where  water  is  obtained  from  wells,  it  is  raised  by  large 
pumps  which  can  throw  thousands  of  gallons  in  an  hour.  It 
is  pumped  into  ditches  and  allowed  to  run  out  over  the  land 
as  in  the  other  cases.  Irrigation  from  deep  wells  is  especially 
practised  in  the  rice  fields  of  Louisiana,  Texas,  and  Arkansas. 
Irrigation  of  rice  is  called  ''flooding."  The  water  is  turned 
on  several  inches  deep  and  allowed  to  stand  for  a  few  days, 
then  it  is  drained  off.  Rice  lands  are  flooded  two  or  three 
times  during  a  season  of  growth.  For  all  crops  other  than 
grain  or  grass  crops  it  is  necessary  to  stir  the  top  soil  as  soon 
as  dry  enough  after  irrigation  in  order  to  keep  the  water  from 
evaporating. 


CHAPTER  V 
HANDLING  THE  SOIL 

Plowing,  harrowing,  rolling,  disking,  cultivating,  and  fal- 
lowing are  called  tillage  operations  and  are  used  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  the  soil  for  crops.  Not  all  of  these  processes  are 
used  for  every  crop.  The  kind  of  soil,  the  nature  of  the  sea- 
son, and  the  crop  to  be  planted — all  these  have  something  to 
do  with  the  amount  of  preparation  given  the  land.  For  ex- 
ample, the  raising  of  wheat  does  not  call  for  any  cultivation. 
Then,  too,  it  is  not  a  good  thing  to  roll  land  in  a  wet  season. 
Again,  oats  and  other  spring-season  grains  are  frequently 
sown  without  plowing  the  ground. 

Parts  of  the  Plow. — The  beam  is  the  principal  part  of  the 
plow.  To  it  all  the  other  parts  are  fastened  and  to  it  the 
horses  are  hitched  by  means  of  the  clevis  to  pull  it  through 
the  ground.  The  beam  may  be  made  of  wood  or  iron.  The 
share  is  the  part  which  slips  along  on  the  bottom  of  the  fur- 
row and  cuts  the  soil  loose.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  "  point." 
It  is  made  either  of  cast  iron  or  wrought  iron.  The  cast-iron 
point  is  most  in  favor  for  fall  plowing,  because  it  is  very  hard 
and  does  not  get  dull  so  soon  as  a  wrought-iron  point.  The 
mold-board  is  the  curved  part  just  above  the  share  and  over 
which  the  soil  is  pushed  when  the  plow  goes  through  the  ground. 
It  is  curved  so  that  the  soil  is  turned  over  by  the  time  it  has 
slipped  over  the  mold-board.    If  the  mold-board  has  a  long 

34 


HANDLING  THE   SOIL  35 

curve,  the  plow  is  said  to  be  a  sod-plow,  because  it  will  turn 
the  sod  over  well.  If  the  mold-board  has  a  short,  steep  curve 
it  is  called  a  "bold"  mold-board,  and  the  plow  is  a  good 
stubble-plow,  because  it  pulverizes  the  soil  while  turning  it 
over.  The  part  which  slips  along  next  to  the  unplowed  land 
is  called  the  land-side.  The  handles  are  the  parts  that  the 
plowman  uses  to  guide  the  plow.  The  colter  or  cutter  is  a 
sharp  bar  of  metal  fastened  to  the  beam  or  to  the  plow-point, 


4.      A   WALKING    BREAKING    PLOW 

which  pushes  ahead  of  the  mold-board  to  cut  the  soil 
from  top  to  bottom.  The  colter  is  not  absolutely  necessary. 
Sometimes  instead  of  a  colter  shoving  through  the  soil  there 
is  a  solid  sharp  wheel  fixed  to  the  beam  which  cuts  the  soil. 
This  is  called  a  rolling-cutter.  The  shank  is  a  bar  extending 
straight  down  from  the  beam  and  to  it  the  share,  mold-board 
and  land -side  are  fastened.  It  helps  to  give  stiffness  to  the 
plow.  The  jointer  looks  like  a  little  plow  fastened  to  the  beam. 
It  takes  the  place  of  the  colter  and  turns  a  narrow  and  shal- 
low slice  of  soil  in  front  of  the  main  slice.  It  is  particularly 
useful  in  the  turning  under  of  trash  of  all  kinds  and  especially 


36  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

useful  in  plowing  sod.  The  beam-wheel  is  a  wheel  fastened 
at  the  end  of  the  beam  where  the  team  is  hitched.  It  serves 
to  steady  the  plow.    It  is  not  found  on  all  plows. 

A  right-hand  plow  turns  the  soil  to  the  right,  a  left-hand 
plow  turns  it  to  the  left.  One  kind  is  as  good  as  the  other. 
The  plow  is  regulated  usually  by  the  clevis,  which  can  be 
moved  from  side  to  side  and  up  or  down.  In  the  case  of  a 
left-hand  plow,  if  the  clevis  is  moved  toward  the  right  the 
plow  will  not  turn  so  much  soil,  but  if  it  is  moved  toward  the 
left  the  plow  will  turn  a  wider  strip  of  land.  If  the  clevis  is 
moved  down  the  plow  will  run  less  deep,  but  if  it  is  moved 
up  the  plow  will  go  deeper.  The  soil  that  is  turned  over  is 
called  the  furrow-slice.  Several  furrow-slices  together  make 
the  land.  Where  a  strip  of  ground  or  a  field  is  finished  there 
is  a  furrow  or  ditch  called  a  dead-furrow. 

Kinds  of  Plows. — The  kind  of  plow  described  above  re- 
quires the  plowman  to  walk  after  it.  It  is  called  a  walking- 
plow.  When  the  plow  is  mounted  on  wheels  it  is  called  a 
sulky-plow.  If  two  or  more  plows  are  attached  together  so 
that  two  or  more  furrow-slices  are  turned  over  at  the  same 
time  we  have  a  gang-plow.  The  gang-plow  can  be  used  suc- 
cessfully only  in  large  fields.  On  some  very  large  fields  in 
prairie  regions  plowing  is  done  with  large  gang-plows  pulled 
by  an  engine.  Sometimes  two  plows,  a  right  and  a  left,  are 
attached  side  by  side  to  the  same  axle  of  a  sulky,  so  that  one 
plow  is  used  to  plow  across  the  field  in  one  direction  and  then, 
by  turning  around  and  going  back  in  the  furrow  just  made, 
the  other  plow  is  used.  This  is  called  a  re^emfeZe  plow.  It  is 
always  mounted  on  wheels  and  is  useful  in  plowing  hillsides. 
Another  kind  of  reversible  plow  has  the  share  and  mold- 
board  so  arranged  that  they  can  be  turned  under  the  shank, 


HANDLING   THE    SOIL 


37 


and  one  can  plow  backward  and  forward  along  the  side  of 
the  hill.  This  is  called  a  swivel-plow.  There  is  a  kind  of 
plow  which  has  a  concave  disk  in  place  of  the  share  and 
mold-board.  This  is  called  a  disk-plow.  It  does  good  work 
in  stubble  ground,  free  from  sticks  and  stones.  It  has  not 
come  into  use  very  much  yet.  A  subsoil  plow  is  one  that  can 
be  run  in  the  furrow  made  by  the  ordinary  plow  and  stir  up 


A    SUBSOIL    PLOW 


the  subsoil.  It  has  a  longer  shank  than  other  plows  and 
usually  does  not  turn  a  furrow-slice,  but  shoves  through  the 
ground  like  a  ground-mole,  loosening  the  soil. 

Plowing. — Plowing  is  the  most  important  tillage  operation. 
Its  main  purpose  is  to  pulverize  the  soil.  When  the  soil  slips 
up  over  the  mold-board  the  particles  are  made  to  slip  over 
each  other  and  so  tear  it  apart,  making  it  loose.  When  the 
ground  is  in  just  the  right  condition  to  plow,  the  furrow-slice 
will  be  turned  over  with  scarcely  any  clods  and  a  very  small 
amount  of  harrowing  will  put  the  soil  in  good  condition  for  seed. 


38  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

Besides  pulverizing  the  soil,  the  plow  is  useful  for  turning 
under  trash,  weeds  and  manure.  The  jointer  aids  in  turning 
these  under  completely.  It  is  desirable  to  have  these  turned 
under  so  that  the  surface  will  be  free  in  order  to  plant  the 
seed  well.  Furthermore,  by  decaying  under  ground,  the  ma- 
terial will  be  more  useful  as  plant  food. 

Plowing  may  be  done  at  any  time  of  the  year,  except  when 
the  ground  is  frozen.  In  general,  land  is  plowed  in  the  spring 
or  in  the  autumn.  Where  land  is  to  be  put  in  winter  wheat  it 
is  plowed  early  in  the  autumn,  say  August  and  September. 
For  corn  and  oats  the  land  may  be  plowed  in  late  autumn  or 
in  the  spring.  1.  By  plowing  in  the  autumn  the  soil  is  ex- 
posed to  freezing  and  thawing  weather  which  aids  in  break- 
ing up  the  soil  particles  and  makes  more  plant  food  ready 
for  plants.  2.  It  also  catches  the  rain  and  snow  better  and 
thus  holds  more  moisture.  If  the  land  is  well  drained  this  is 
desirable,  for  such  land  fall-plowed  will  have  more  moisture 
for  the  plants  next  year  than  land  plowed  in  the  spring.  3. 
Land  plowed  in  the  autumn  will  dry  off  quicker  next  spring 
than  unplowed  land  and  so  the  crop  can  be  put  out  sooner. 
4.  Plowing  in  the  fall  also  turns  up  to  the  weather  many  in- 
sects that  live  in  the  ground  during  the  winter.  Many  of  them 
are  picked  up  by  the  winter  birds  or  are  killed  by  the  freezing 
and  thawing  weather.  It  is  better  to  plow  sandy  soil  in  the 
autumn,  if  manure  is  to  be  turned  under.  Loam  soils  can  be 
plowed  to  good  advantage  in  the  fall,  but  if  a  clay  has  a  habit 
of  running  together  when  it  thaws  it  would  better  not  be 
plowed  until  spring.  Land  that  has  a  tendency  to  wash  should 
not  be  plowed  in  the  autumn  unless  the  furrows  are  thrown 
across  the  direction  that  the  washing  will  take  place.  Hill- 
sides are  often  plowed  this  way  in  the  fall.    Fall-plowed  land 


HANDLING  THE   SOIL  39 

should  not  be  harrowed  down,  for  the  freezing  and  thawing 
and  rains  will  make  it  flat  enough. 

Spring  plowing  should  be  done  as  early  as  the  land  is 
dry  enough.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  soil  is  not  too  wet 
or  clods  will  be  made,  and  the  furrow-slice  will  become  more 
compact  than  before  plowing.  When  the  soil  is  dry  enough 
to  crumble  easily  after  being  squeezed  into  a  ball  in  the  hand, 
it  will  crumble  up  nicely  in  the  plowing.  Early  spring  plow- 
ing is  best  because  it  keeps  the  moisture  from  d-rying  out  of 
the  soil.  We  can  think  of  the  plowed  ground  as  being  a  deep 
mulch,  preventing  the  moisture  in  the  subsoil  from  getting  to 
the  surface  and  evaporating.  It  is  not  a  good  plan  in  a  dry 
spring  to  wait  for  rye  or  clover  to  get  a  good  start  before 
plowing  under,  because  they  will  greatly  reduce  the  soil 
moisture.  Then,  too,  such  a  method  may  turn  under  so 
much  material  that  the  furrow-slice  will  be  disconnected 
from  the  subsoil  and  the  moisture  from  below  will  be  hindered 
in  passing  upward  into  the  furrow-slice.  If  there  is  a  period 
of  little  rain  after  such  plowing,  the  crops  planted  will  suffer 
for  moisture. 

The  purpose  of  subsoiling  is  to  loosen  the  soil  to  a  greater 
depth  than  the  ordinary  plow  does.  This  enables  the  soil  to 
receive  and  retain  more  water  and  also  to  let  the  roots  feed 
deeper.  Subsoiling  should  be  done  in  the  autumn  or  sum- 
mer, because  the  ground  is  not  dry  enough  in  the  spring. 
Subsoiling  is  hard  work  for  the  team  and  the  plowman;  it  is 
seldom  necessary  in  well  drained  land ;  and  the  results  hardly 
ever  pay  for  the  extra  labor,  except  with  very  hard  subsoils. 

In  plowing,  one  of  three  kinds  of  furrows  is  generally 
turned.  1.  The  jiat  furrow  is  one  in  which  the  furrow-slice  is 
completely  turned  over  flat.     It  does  not  pulverize  the  soil 


40 


AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 


well  and  is  hard  to  work  up  into  good  condition.  2.  The  /ap 
or  overlapping  furrow  is  one  in  which  the  furrow-slice  over- 
laps the  previous  one  and  covers  about  half  of  it.  In  this 
kind  of  furrow  the  slice  seems  to  be  standing  on  one  corner. 
This  is  the  kind  of  furrow  that  should  be  used  in  fall  plowing, 


6.       A    GOOD    JOB    Oi 
A  reversible  plow  is  being  used 
By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station 


for  it  will  expose  considerable  surface  to  the  weather  and  will 
catch  much  rain  and  snow.  3.  The  rolling  furrow  is  much 
like  the  lap  furrow  except  that  one  edge  seems  to  be  rolled 
under  and  the  whole  slice  does  not  seem  to  be  standing  so 
much  on  a  corner.  The  rolling  furrow  is  made  by  a  plow 
having  a  jointer  attached.  This  kind  of  furrow-slice  pul- 
verizes the  soil  well  and  leaves  the  land  in  good  condition  to 
harrow. 


HANDLING  THE   SOIL  41 

Harrowing. — The  purpose  of  harrowing  is  to  put  the 
ground  in  good  condition  to  receive  the  seed.  After  the 
plowing  has  been  done  there  are  many  small  clods  that  can 
be  easily  broken  if  a  harrow  is  dragged  over  the  land.  If  the 
land  plowed  has  been  sod,  it  will  be  necessary  to  stir  the 
plowed  ground  to  break  up  the  roots  and  make  fine  soil  to 
cover  the  seed.  Sometimes,  also,  after  plowing  there  come 
heavy  rains  which  beat  down  the  land  so  hard  that  harrowing 
is  necessary  to  loosen  it.  Besides  putting  the  soil  in  shape  to 
receive  the  seed,  harrowing  helps  to  warm  the  soil  by  loosening 
it  so  that  the  warm  air  can  circulate  through  it.  At  the  same 
time  this  loosening  and  fining  the  surface  aids  in  keeping  the 
moisture  in  the  lower  soil  from  being  evaporated  at  the  sur- 
face. Making  the  soil  fine  lets  more  plant  food  become 
available  for  the  plants.  So  it  can  be  seen  that  harrowing  is 
also  important. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  harrows  and  each  has  its  par- 
ticular usefulness.  1.  The  spike-tooth  or  smoothing  harrow 
has  a  wooden  or  iron  frame  into  which  iron  teeth  are  fixed. 
These  teeth  can  be  made  to  stand  straight  or  to  slant  as  de- 
sired by  means  of  a  lever.  It  is  usually  made  in  sections. 
This  kind  of  harrow  is  most  extensively  used.  It  is  good  to 
break  clods,  loosen  the  soil  when  not  too  hard,  and  to  level 
down  uneven  land.  Its  most  important  use  is  for  pulverizing 
and  levelling  the  surface  soil.  2.  The  spring-tooth  harrow 
has  curved  strips  of  steel  fixed  into  a  frame.  These  can  be 
regulated  by  means  of  a  lever  also.  This  kind  of  harrow  is 
useful  mainly  for  loosening  up  ground  that  has  become 
packed.  It  needs  to  be  followed  by  a  spike- tooth  harrow  to 
level  down  the  little  ridges  left.  3.  The  acme  or  colter  har- 
row is  made  of  a  number  of  sharp  blades,  like  corn  knives, 


42  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

which  drag  over  the  land  and  cut  and  turn  it  a  few  inches 
deep.  This  kind  of  harrow  is  especially  useful  on  sod  ground, 
but  is  not  extensively  used.  It  cannot  be  used  successfully  on 
trashy  or  stony  ground.  4.  The  disk  harrow  is  made  up  of 
a  number  of  disks  fastened  to  a  shaft  which  turns  with  the 
disks.  These  disks  are  about  twelve  inches  or  more  in 
diameter,  and  cut  the  ground  two  to  three  or  four  inches  deep, 
according  to  the  angle  at  which  they  are  set  by  the  regulator. 


A   DISK   HARROW   AT   WORK 


The  disk  is  useful  to  cut  clods  to  pieces  and  to  cut  up  ground 
that  has  become  compact.  It  is  also  useful  on  sod  ground  to 
cut  the  sod  to  pieces  and  make  loose  soil.  It  is  frequently 
used  in  the  spring  to  cut  up  corn-stubble  ground  to  prepare  it 
for  oats.  The  disk  should  be  followed  by  the  spike-tooth 
harrow  to  level  down  the  ridges  and  crush  the  smaller  clods. 
Rolling. — Sometimes  the  land  is  so  full  of  large,  hard  clods 
that  the  harrow  will  not  put  it  into  shape  without  a  great  deal 
of  labor.  The  roller  is  then  a  useful  tool  to  use.  This  is 
sometimes  a  tree  cut  into  sections  and  fastened  into  a  frame 


HANDLING  THE   SOIL  43 

and  sometimes  is  made  by  bolting  narrow  planks  on  iron 
wheels.  Another  kind  of  roller,  called  a  clod-crusher,  is  made 
entirely  of  cast-iron  wheels.  The  roller  is  always  a  heavy  tool 
and  crushes  the  clods  and  at  the  same  time  packs  the  land. 
After  the  land  is  rolled  it  should  be  harrowed  with  a  spike- 
harrow  to  loosen  the  surface  and  tear  the  crushed  clods  apart. 

Frequently  the  land  is  too  loose  for  the  crop  that  is  to  be 
planted.  The  roller  can  then  be  used  to  pack  the  land.  At 
other  times  the  soil  is  quite  dry  when  the  seed  is  planted. 
Rolling  will  pack  the  soil  about  the  seed  so  that  the  moisture 
will  come  in  contact  with  it  and  help  the  germination.  By 
packing  the  soil  the  capillary  rise  of  moisture  is  increased  and 
water  is  brought  from  below  to  the  surface.  Thus  rolling  in 
a  dry  time  tends  to  make  the  soil  wetter  near  the  surface,  but 
it  should  not  be  left  smooth  very  long.  It  should  be  harrowed 
as  soon  as  the  planted  seed  has  germinated  to  prevent  the 
evaporation  from  the  surface. 

Disking. — We  have  just  said  that  a  disk  harrow  is  a  good 
tool  to  cut  up  the  clods  and  to  loosen  a  packed  surface.  Some- 
times in  the  spring  before  the  farmer  can  get  all  of  his  corn- 
stubble  ground  plowed,  the  surface  has  become  quite  hard 
and  dry.  When  this  is  plowed  with  the  ordinary  plow  the 
clods  turned  over  will  be  big  and  it  will  take  a  good  deal 
of  work  to  make  them  fine.  Even  after  a  good  deal  of  har- 
rowing and  rolling  there  will  still  be  clods  in  the  under  part 
of  the  furrow-slice.  These  clods  will  interfere  with  the  up- 
ward movement  of  moisture  and  will  also  keep  the  roots  of 
plants  from  getting  their  food.  The  clods  being  hard  the 
roots  will  not  penetrate  them  freely,  so  the  food  that  is  in 
such  clods  cannot  be  easily  obtained.  It  is  a  good  prac- 
tice for  the  farmer  to  disk  his  corn-stubble  ground  before  hq 


44  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

plows  it.  Disking  will  keep  the  hard  crust  from  forming  and 
will  also  save  the  moisture  by  keeping  it  from  evaporating. 
Land  treated  in  this  way  will  plow  more  easily  and  there  v/ill 
not  be  so  many  hard  clods  turned  over.  The  work  of  prepar- 
ing the  plowed  ground  for  seed  will  be  less,  for  there  are  fewer 
clods  and  the  furrow-slice  will  pulverize  better  in  turning  over. 

If  the  field  to  be  plowed  was  in  clover  last  year  so  that 
there  is  a  good  deal  of  stubble  left  on  the  ground,  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  disk  it  before  plowing.  Besides  preventing  a  crust,  the 
disking  will  mix  the  stubble  more  or  less  with  the  soil.  This 
is  desirable  because  the  stubble  will  rot  more  quickly,  and 
because  if  the  stubble  were  not  mixed  with  the  soil  but  simply 
turned  under,  it  would  tend  to  check  the  upward  movement 
of  capillary  moisture  and  so  hinder  the  growth  of  the  plant's 
roots,  especially  if  the  weather  is  dry.  For  the  same  reason 
disking  is  good  for  land  covered  with  manure.  It  is  also  good 
for  sod  land  before  plowing,  but  the  cutting  action  of  the  disk 
is  not  so  great  on  sod  as  on  stubble. 

Cultivation. — By  cultivation  we  mean  the  stirring  of  the 
soil  after  the  crop  has  been  planted.  Usually  it  is  not  done 
until  the  plants  have  come  up  and  can  be  easily  seen.  Corn 
and  potatoes  are  the  main  farm  crops  cultivated.  Cultivation 
has  two  main  objects.  One  is  to  kill  weeds  and  the  other  is 
to  save  moisture.  Usually  it  is  not  the  purpose  of  cultivation 
to  loosen  the  soil,  although  this  is  sometimes  necessary  after 
a  packing  rain.  The  plowing  of  the  ground,  if  it  was  well 
done,  did  that.  We  need  to  kill  the  weeds  because  they  use 
water  and  plant  food  and  also  choke  out  the  young  plants 
that  we  want  to  grow.  It  takes  just  as  much  food  and  water 
to  grow  a  rag-weed  as  it  does  a  corn  plant  of  the  same  size. 
We  need  to  save  moisture,  for  during  the  summer  we  have 


HANDLING   THE    SOIL  45 

less  rain  than  in  the  spring,  and  the  ground  soon  gets  too  dry 
for  the  plants  to  grow  well.  When  the  plants  get  large  they 
use  a  great  deal  of  water  and  so  draw  much  moisture  from 
the  ground.  Professor  King*  tells  us  that  when  a  corn  plant 
is  coming  into  tassel  it  uses  nearly  three  pounds  of  water 


8.   THE  ROOT  SYSTEM  OF  A  CORN  PLANT 

One  of  these  large  roots  cut  off  in  cultivating  means  much  loss  of  moisture  and 
food  to  the  plant. 

By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station 

every  day.  If  we  think  of  all  the  stalks  in  the  field  using 
that  much  water  daily  we  can  see  how  important  it  is  to  save 
the  moisture. 

Cultivation  saves  moisture  by  making  a  loose,  dry  layer  of 
soil  on  the  surface.    This  dry  layer  acts  like  a  blanket  and 
when  moisture  comes  up  from  below  it  can  go  no  further 
*  The  Soil,  p.  208. 


46  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

than  the  dry  layer  and  so  is  not  evaporated.  It  must  be 
understood,  however,  that  not  every  bit  of  moisture  can  be 
saved.  Some  of  it  finds  its  way  through  the  dry  layer  and  is 
lost.  A  dry  layer  two  and  one-half  or  three  inches  deep  is 
best  for  saving  the  moisture.  It  is  better  not  to  stir  the 
ground  deeper  than  this,  for  by  so  doing  the  roots  of  the  plant 
are  likely  to  be  disturbed. 

When  corn  plants  are  eighteen  inches  high  their  roots 
reach  clear  across  the  middle  between  the  rows,  and.  some  of 
the  roots  are  not  far  from  the  surface.  If  one  of  these  roots 
is  cut  off  the  plant  has  to  do  without  the  food  and  water 
which  that  root  would  have  furnished.  When  we  stir  the 
ground  two  or  three  inches  deep  we  are  giving  shallow  culti- 
vation. Deeper  than  three  inches  is  generally  called  deep 
cultivation.  It  is  better  to  have  the  surface  left  nearly  level 
after  cultivating  than  to  have  high  ridges.  If  the  cultivator 
has  small  teeth  or  shovels  the  ridges  will  not  be  very  high. 
The  high  ridges  give  more  surface  for  the  evaporation  of 
water,  hence  they  are  not  desirable.  It  is  not  necessary  for 
the  ground  between  and  around  the  plants  to  be  ridged  up 
to  make  the  plants  stand  up  well. 

The  number  of  times  that  a  crop  should  be  cultivated  can- 
not be  told  exactly.  It  should  be  cultivated  often  enough  to 
keep  down  the  weeds  and  to  keep  the  surface  loose.  Even  if 
the  weeds  are  all  killed  the  ground  should  be  stirred  about 
once  a  week  until  the  crop  is  well  grown,  for  the  loose  surface 
will  become  more  or  less  settled  and  more  water  will  be 
evaporated.  In  other  words,  the  soil  mulch  will  wear  out  and 
must  be  renewed. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  cultivators,  but  to  be  effective 
they  must  all  have  two  merits.    They  must  be  easily  regulated 


HANDLING   THE   SOIL 


47 


and  they  must  stir  all  of  the  surface  soil.  There  are  harrow- 
tooth  cultivators,  spring-tooth  cultivators,  colter  or  shovel 
cultivators,  gopher  cultivators,  and  disk  cultivators.  Some 
cultivate  only  one  side  of  a  row  at  a  time,  most  of  them  culti- 
vate a  whole  row  at  a  time,  and  some  of  them  cultivate  two 
rows  at  a  time.  But  any  and  all  of  these  cultivators  must 
fulfil  the  two  requirements  if  they  are  to  do  good  work. 


A   TWO-ROW   CORN   CULTIVATOR 


The  most  common  cultivator  is  the  svlhj  cultivator.  In 
this  the  parts  that  do  the  cultivating  are  attached  to  a  frame 
which  is  carried  on  wheels.  It  has  two  parts  called  gangs  to 
which  the  shovels  or  disks  are  attached.  It  can  cultivate  one 
row  at  a  time.  There  is  usually  a  seat  so  that  the  workman 
can  ride  and  guide  the  gangs.  There  is  a  sulky  cultivator 
which  has  three  gangs  that  can  cultivate  two  rows  at  a  time. 
It  is  called  a  two-row  cultivator.  It  can  be  used  conveniently 
only  in  large  fields. 


48  AGRICULTURE   FOR   COMMON   SCHOOLS 

Fallowing. — This  method  of  tillage  is  no  longer  used  as  it 
once  was.  In  fallowing,  the  ground  is  plowed  in  the  spring 
and  kept  harrowed  and  cultivated  during  the  summer.  No 
crop  is  planted.  The  harrowing  and  cultivating  keep  the 
weeds  down  and  save  the  moisture  in  the  soil.  Sometimes 
the  land  is  re-plowed  two  or  three  times  during  the  summer. 
The  purpose  of  fallowing  is  to  rest  the  land  and  increase  its 
fertility  or  to  kill  troublesome  weeds.  The  land  does  not 
exactly  rest,  but  since  it  does  not  produce  any  crop  there  is 
no  draft  upon  its  store  of  plant  food  and  the  plowing  and 
cultivating  of  the  land  loosen  it  so  that  the  air  and  water  and 
bacteria  can  get  at  the  soil  particles  and  make  more  plant 
food  ready  for  use  next  year.  The  growing  of  the  same  crop 
year  after  year  on  the  same  land  caused  it  to  run  down  and 
made  the  need  for  rest.  We  now  know  that  it  is  better  to 
change  the  crops  on  the  field  every  year,  that  is,  practice  a 
rotation.   We  shall  tell  all  about  rotations  in  another  chapter. 


CHAPTER  VI 
FARM  MANURES 

Farm  manures  are  of  two  kinds:  1.  Farmyard  manure, 
obtained  from  stables  and  yards.  2.  Green  manure,  ob- 
tained by  plowing  under  green  growth  of  rye,  clover,  cow- 
peas,  or  even  weeds. 

The  value  of  farmyard  manure  is  influenced  by  three 
things:  1.  Its  source.  2.  The  manner  of  saving.  3.  The 
time  and  way  it  is  applied  to  the  land. 

1.  The  Source  of  the  Manure. — (a)  The  droppings  from 
such  animals  as  horses,  sheep  and  chickens  are  rather  dry, 
and  when  thrown  in  a  pile  soon  get  quite  warm  and  ''heat," 
as  we  say.  They  are  called  "hot"  manures.  The  droppings 
from  cattle  and  swine  are  quite  wet  and  do  not  heat  so  quickly 
when  thrown  in  a  pile,  and  are  called  *'cold"  manures. 

(6)  The  manure  from  young  and  growing  animals,  as  colts 
and  calves,  is  not  so  valuable  as  that  from  older  animals,  and 
especially  animals  that  are  fattening.  The  excrement  gen- 
erally contains  70  to  95  per  cent,  or  more  of  the  elements  that 
were  in  the  food  eaten  by  the  animals.  Now,  young  and 
growing  animals  use  up  more  of  the  nitrogen,  phosphoric 
acid,  and  potash  in  the  food  for  their  bodies  to  make  blood, 
bone,  and  flesh  than  do  older  animals. 

(c)  The  manure  from  animals  that  are  fed  on  rich  food, 
like  clover,  alfalfa,  bran,  cottonseed-meal,  oats  or  other  foods 
rich  in  nitrogen,  is  better  than  that  from  animals  fed  on  tim- 

49 


50  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

othy  hay,  straw,  corn  stover  or  other  feeds  not  rich  in  nitro- 
gen and  to  which  little  or  no  grain  has  been  added. 

(d)  Animals  poor  in  flesh  do  not  make  valuable  manure, 
because  they  remove  much  of  the  plant  food  that  is  in  the 
food  to  build  up  their  own  bodies.  The  making  of  bone  and 
lean  meat  and  blood  requires  much  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid 
and  potash,  but  the  making  of  fat  does  not  require  very  much 
of  any  of  these  elements. 

(e)  The  bedding  used  in  the  stable  should  be  a  kind  that 
will  absorb  the  liquid  excrement  readily.  The  liquid  excre- 
ment contains  a  large  per  cent,  of  the  nitrogen  and  potash 
that  was  in  the  feed.  These  are  valuable  plant  foods  and 
should  be  saved.  Straw  is  the  most  common  bedding  used 
and  absorbs  liquids  fairly  well.  Shredded  corn  stover  that 
has  been  left  uneaten  by  the  animals  makes  an  excellent  bed- 
ding. It  absorbs  better  than  straw.  Sawdust  is  a  good 
absorbent,  but  it  is  injurious  to  the  land  and  should  not  be 
used  for  bedding. 

2.  Saving  the  Manure. — The  manure  on  most  farms  is  not 
saved  carefully.  Often  animals  are  confined  in  yards  and  no 
effort  at  all  is  made  to  save  the  droppings,  and  the  rains  wash 
them  away,  or  they  are  tramped  into  the  mud.  Very  often 
when  stables  are  cleaned  out  the  manure  is  thrown  under 
the  eaves  of  the  barn  or  shed  and  the  rain  from  the 
roof  soon  saturates  the  pile  and  a  dark  liquid  soon  be- 
gins to  run  away  from  it.  This  contains  much  plant  food  in 
the  form  of  nitrogen  and  potash  and  is  usually  lost  by  draining 
into  a  stream  or  soaking  into  the  ground  where  no  crop  is 
raised.  Then  again,  it  often  happens  that  manure  is  thrown 
into  large  piles  or  boxes  where  it  lies  exposed  to  rain  and 
weather  for  several  months.    Under  such  conditions  it  gets 


FARM  MANURES  51 

warm,  ''heats,"  and  ferments.  This  fermenting  causes  the 
production  of  ammonia  which  contains  nitrogen.  This 
escapes  into  the  air  and  is  lost.  All  of  these  ways  are  more  or 
less  careless,  and  on  nearly  every  farm  better  methods  could 
be  used.  It  is  better  to  allow  the  manure  to  accumulate  in 
the  stable  and  be  trampled  under  foot  by  the  animals,  pro- 
viding plenty  of  bedding  is  given,  than  to  throw  it  out  in  a 
pile  to  ferment  and  burn.  The  tramping  in  the  stable  keeps 
the  manure  solid  and  thus  keeps  it  moist  and  from  heating. 
In  some  cases,  for  instance,  where  calves,  colts,  sheep,  or 
steers  are  fed  loose  in  a  stable  or  shed  the  manure  might  be 
allowed  to  collect  during  the  entire  winter.  As  soon  as  the 
animals  are  taken  out  of  the  stable  or  shed  the  manure 
should  be  hauled  to  the  field  and  scattered  at  once.  Or,  if 
the  stable  is  cleaned  out  during  the  winter,  the  manure  should 
be  taken  to  the  field  at  once.  Where  animals  are  kept  in  open 
yards  the  droppings  should  be  gathered  every  day  and  thrown 
into  a  pile  which  should  be  hauled  out  every  few  days.  Some- 
times the  ground  is  too  wet  to  drive  over,  or  the  field  on  which 
the -manure  is  to  be  spread  is  in  a  crop.  In  such  cases  it  may 
be  desirable  to  keep  the  manure  for  several  weeks.  It  should 
then  be  stored  in  a  heap  where  it  will  not  get  wet  enough 
to  produce  drainage,  but  where,  if  necessary,  water  can  be 
applied  to  keep  it  from  getting  hot.  The  pile  should  be  made 
solid  and  as  deep  as  possible.  A  basin-like  place  with  the 
bottom  and  sides  cemented  is  a  good  place  to  store  manure, 
and  if  it  has  a  roof  over  it  all  the  better. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  if  manure  must  be  kept  in 
a  heap  for  a  time,  the  pile  should  be  deep,  solid,  and  wet,  but 
not  wet  enough  for  drainage.  It  has  been  found  by  experi- 
ment that  where  manure  was  exposed  in  loose,  shallow  piles 


52  AGRICULTURE    FOR   COMMON   SCHOOLS 

it  lost  in  less  than  four  months  more  than  half  of  its  nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid,  and  potash.  The  potash  and  phosphoric 
acid  got  away  by  drainage  and  the  nitrogen  largely  by  fer- 
mentation. 

3.  How  to  Apply  Manure. — We  have  said  that  manure 
should  be  hauled  to  the  field  as  soon  as  possible.  It  should 
also  be  spread  at  once.     It  is  very  wasteful  to  dump  the 


lO.       USING   A    MANURE    SPREADER 
Spread  in  this  way  manure  gives  best  results 

manure  off  in  piles  and  let  it  lie  there  for  weeks  before  spread- 
ing. Every  rain  that  comes  will  wash  out  some  soluble  ma- 
terial into  the  soil  just  around  and  under  the  pile.  Thus  it  is 
that  the  plant  food  is  not  equally  distributed  over  the  field. 
Spreading  the  manure  with  a  manure  spreader  is  the  very 
best  way  to  get  it  distributed  equally  over  the  field.  The 
manure  spreader  is  a  wagon  whose  floor  is  loose  and  is 
moved  toward  the  rear  end  of  the  wagon  by  means  of  cogs. 
At  the  back  end  of  the  box  is  a  spiked  reel  which  also  turns 


FARM  MANURES  53 

by  cogs.  As  the  team  moves  forward  the  floor  moves  back- 
ward and  the  reel  whirls  around  rapidly,  catching  the  ma- 
nure, tearing  it  apart  and  spreading  it  over  the  land  much 
more  completely,  much  quicker  and  easier  than  a  man  can 
do  it  with  a  fork. 

It  does  not  matter  about  plowing  the  manure  under  right 
away.  What  is  washed  out  by  rains  will  go  into  the  soil  and 
be  soon  used  by  plants.  The  only  danger  is  when  the  land 
is  sloping,  causing  the  water  to  run  away  instead  of  soaking 
into  the  ground.  However,  when  the  manure  is  plowed  under 
it  will  begin  to  decay  and  thus  add  humus  to  the  soil  and  also 
give  more  plant  food  to  the  plants.  It  will  also  aid  in  holding 
water  and  in  making  the  ground  looser  by  keeping  it  from 
packing  down  so  completely.  When  manure  is  spread,  dur- 
ing the  winter,  on  land  that  is  to  be  plowed  in  the  spring,  it 
keeps  the  land  from  thawing  and  drying  quickly  in  the  spring. 
Especially  is  this  true  if  it  has  been  spread  on  top  of  snow. 
This,  however,  is  not  likely  to  result  in  any  inconvenience 
except  on  undrained  land. 

It  is  better  to  apply  small  quantities  of  manure  to  the  land 
often  rather  than  large  quantities  not  so  often.  For  example, 
it  is  better  to  apply  five  tons  per  acre  every  three  or  four  years 
than  to  apply  ten  tons  every  eight  or  ten  years.  With  a  manure 
spreader  a  small  quantity  of  manure  can  be  made  to  cover  a 
larger  area  of  ground  and  thus  the  fields  can  be  treated 
oftener.  The  amount  of  manure  applied  per  acre  varies  a 
great  deal.  Five  tons  is  considered  a  light  dressing,  while 
twenty  and  thirty  tons  per  acre  are  often  applied,  especially 
in  gardening.  Ten  tons  per  acre  is  a  very  good  amount  for 
ordinary  farm  practice. 

One  good  thing  about  farmyard  manure  is  the  way  it  lasts 


54  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

in  the  ground.  The  effect  of  manuring  can  be  seen  on  the 
yields  of  crops  for  many  years  after  the  manure  has  been 
applied.  At  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station  it  has  been 
shown  that  the  manure  was  making  an  increased  yield  twenty 
years  after  it  was  applied. 

Green  Manuring. — By  green  manuring  is  meant  the  plow- 
ing under  of  green  plants  so  that  in  their  decay  under  ground 
they  will  add  humus  to  the  soil.  Furthermore,  the  acids  pro- 
duced by  their  decay  attack  the  rock  particles  and  make  new 
compounds,  some  of  which  are  useful  as  food  for  plants.  The 
addition  of  humus,  as  we  have  learned,  aids  the  soil  in  re- 
taining moisture  in  a  better  way  and  at  the  same  time  puts  the 
soil  into  better  condition  for  cultivation.  Sandy  soils  are 
made  cooler  and  clay  soils  warmer  by  the  addition  of  humus. 

Any  kind  of  plant  can  be  used  for  a  green  manuring  crop. 
It  is  better  to  plow  under  weeds  while  they  are  green  than  to 
let  them  go  to  seed.  Rye  is  a  common  green  manuring  crop. 
It  is  sown  in  the  autumn  and  plowed  under  in.  the  spring. 
The  best  green  manuring  plants  are  the  legumes,  because  they 
add  nitrogen,  and  nitrogen  is  the  thing  that  most  soils  need. 
Clovers,  cow-peas,  soy  beans  and  vetches  are  all  good.  Clov- 
ers do  the  soil  most  good  if  turned  under  in  full  blossom,  the 
others  when  the  pods  are  about  one-half  grown.  Legumes 
are  called  nitrogen-gatherers,  because  they  increase  the  total 
amount  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil.  All  other  plants  used  as  green 
manures  can  give  the  soil  only  the  nitrogen  which  they  have 
obtained  from  the  soil  in  the  first  place. 

Usually  it  is  better  to  cut  the  clover  or  cow-peas  for  hay  and 
feed  them  and  return  the  manure  to  the  land.  By  so  doing 
the  farmer  gets  the  benefit  of  the  feed  for  his  animals  and 
nearly  all  the  plant  food  goes  back  to  the  land  to  make  it  richer. 


CHAPTER  VII 

COMMERCIAL  FERTILIZERS 

A  commercial  fertilizer  is  a  manufactured  plant  food.  It  is 
usually  kept  for  sale  at  the  warehouses  and  seed  stores. 
Commercial  fertilizers  are  used  when  the  soil  is  lacking  in 
some  of  the  important  plant  food  elements,  or  when  the 
farmer  wishes  to  give  his  plants  an  extra  good  start  in  order 
to  produce  larger  crops.  Gardeners  frequently  use  commer- 
cial fertilizers  in  place  of  stable  manure,  because  the  stable 
manure  contains  so  many  weed  seeds  that  it  makes  land 
weedy.    Fertilizers  do  not  contain  any  weed  seeds. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  fertilizers,  but  they  nearly  all 
belong  to  one  of  three  classes,  namely,  those  which  furnish 
nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  or  potash.  Some  fertilizers  sup- 
ply more  or  less  of  all  three  of  these  elements,  but  usually 
some  one  element  is  largest  in  amount.  When  a  substance 
or  mixture  supplies  all  three  plant  food  elements  it  is  said  to 
be  a  complete  fertilizer.  We  can  speak  of  only  a  few  of  the 
more  common  fertilizing  materials. 

The  nitrogen  fertilizers  come  from  two  sources,  namely, 
from  plant  or  animal  sources,  that  is,  organic  materials,  and 
from  chemical  sources.  1.  Dried  blood  comes  from  the  large 
slaughtering  houses.  The  fresh  blood  from  the  animals  killed 
is  collected  and  dried.  The  best  grades  of  dried  blood  con- 
tain 12  to  14  per  cent,  of  nitrogen.    Dried  blood  decays  rather 

55 


56  AGRICULTURE    FOR   COMMON   SCHOOLS 

quickly  in  the  soil,  and  yields  its  nitrogen  for  the  use  of 
plants.  2.  Tankage  also  comes  from  the  slaughtering  houses 
in  large  cities.  It  is  made  from  the  intestines  and  their  con- 
tents, small  bones,  waste  flesh,  and  other  parts  of  the  slaugh- 


II.    RESULT    OF    USING    FERTILIZERS    ON    WHEAT 

KPN  stands  for  potash,  phosphorus,  and  nitrogen.  O  stands  for  no  fertilizer. 
KN  stands  for  potash  and  nitrogen.  Notice  which  element  was  most  helpful  in 
these  cases.  jgy  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station 

tered  animal  that  cannot  be  used  otherwise.  This  material 
is  heated  by  steam  and,  when  dry,  ground  into  meal.  Tankage 
usually  contains  some  phosphoric  acid  as  well  as  nitrogen. 
There  are  two  principal  kinds  of  tankage:  (1)  Concentrated 
tankage,  containing  10  to  12  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  and  very 


COMMERCIAL   FERTILIZERS  57 

little  phosphoric  acid.  (2)  Crushed  tankage,  containing  4  to 
9  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  and  3  to  12  per  cent,  of  phosphoric 
acid.  There  is  a  kind  of  tankage  called  digester  tankage  which 
can  be  used  for  feeding  animals  as  well  as  for  fertilizer. 
When  buying  it  one  should  state  for  which  purpose  it  is  to 
be  used,  because  that  for  fertilizer  purposes  only  may  contain 
chemicals  that  would  be  injurious  to  animals.  Tankage  also 
decays  rather  quickly.  3.  Dried  ground  fish  or  fish  guano,  is 
made  from  a  kind  of  fish  called  menhaden,  caught  along  the 
Atlantic  coast.  The  fish  are  steamed  and  pressed  to  get  out 
the  oil.  The  pomace  is  then  ground  and  made  into  fertilizer 
which  contains  about  6  to  8  per  cent,  each  of  nitrogen  and 
phosphoric  acid.  Some  of  the  fish  fertilizer  comes  from  the 
wastes  of  fish  markets  and  fish  canneries.  The  nitrogen  and 
phosphoric  acid  in  these  is  quite  variable.  Fish  fertilizers 
give  up  their  plant  food  about  as  easily  as  tankage  and  dried 
blood.  4.  Cottonseed-meal  is  usually  used  as  a  cattle  food, 
but  it  can  be  used  as  a  fertilizer  as  well.  It  is  made  from 
cotton  seeds.  The  covering  of  the  kernel  is  first  taken  off, 
then  the  kernel  is  ground  and  pressed  to  get  out  the  oil.  The 
pomace  is  called  cottonseed-meal.  It  contains  6  to  7  per  cent, 
of  nitrogen  and  1  to  2  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid.  It  makes  a 
good  fertilizer  and  is  quickly  available.  When  we  say  that 
a  fertilizer  is  quickly  available,  we  mean  that  it  soon  decays 
in  the.  ground  and  gives  up  its  plant  food  to  the  roots  of 
plants.  5.  Guanos  are  composed  mainly  of  the  excrements 
of  fish-eating  birds.  Where  large  numbers  of  sea  birds  roost 
on  the  islands  in  rainless  regions  their  droppings  soon  accu- 
mulate in  large  quantities.  These  are  collected  and  shipped 
to  farming  regions.  Most  of  the  guano  comes  from  islands 
lying  off  the  coast  of  Peru,  and  is  called  Peruvian  guano. 


58  AGRICULTURE    FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

The  supply  from  this  source  is  now  about  exhausted.  6.  Raw 
and  steamed  bone,  meat  meal,  hoof  meal,  horn  meal,  wool 
and  hair  waste,  leather  waste,  castor  pomace,  linseed  meal, 
garbage  tankage,  and  many  other  materials  furnish  nitrogen 
from  organic  sources. 

The  chemical  nitrogen  fertilizers  are  largely  used.  1.  Sul- 
phate of  ammonia  is  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of  coke, 
illuminating  gas  and  bone-black.  It  contains  about  20  per 
cent,  of  nitrogen  and  is  quickly  available.  It  should  not  be 
used  on  "sour"  land,  because  it  requires  the  bacteria  of  the 
soil  to  make  it  available.  2.  Nitrate  of  soda  is  obtained  in 
Chili,  South  America.  There  is  a  large  rainless  region  there 
where  this  mineral  is  mined  by  the  thousands  of  tons  and 
shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  It  is  called  "Chili  salt- 
petre," and  contains  about  16  per  cent,  of  nitrogen.  The 
nitrogen  in  nitrate  of  soda  is  quickly  available  and  is  easily 
lost  on  sandy  land  by  drainage.  3.  Nitrate  of  potash,  or 
common  saltpetre,  is  too  costly  to  be  used  by  farmers  for  a 
fertilizer.    It  contains  both  nitrogen  and  potash. 

The  phosphoric  acid  fertilizers  are  also  obtained  from  two 
sources,  namely,  from  organic  materials  and  from  chemical 
materials.  1.  Ground  bone,  or  raw  bone  meal,  is  made  from 
raw  bones  ground  into  meal,  the  finer  the  better.  This  con- 
tains about  4  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  and  22  per  cent,  of  phos- 
phoric acid.  They  are  slowly  available  and  their  effect  in 
the  ground  lasts  for  several  years.  Steamed  bone  differs  from 
ground  bone  in  that  it  has  been  thoroughly  steamed  before  it 
was  ground.  The  steaming  takes  out  the  fat  and  almost  all 
the  nitrogen.  The  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid  is  about  28  to 
30,  and  the  nitrogen  about  IJ.  Steamed  bone  also  becomes 
useful  slowly.    3.  There  are  other  forms  of  bones  called  ex- 


COMMERCIAL   FERTILIZERS  59 

traded  bone,  bone  ashes,  and  bone-black,  which  are  used  to 
a  small  extent  as  fertilizers. 

The  phosphoric  acid  obtained  from  chemical  sources  is 
generally  in  the  form  called  phosphate.  There  are  two  kinds 
of  phosphates,  the  natural  mineral  phosphates  and  the 
manufactured  phosphates.  1.  Rock  phosphate  is  a  natural 
form.  It  is  thought  to  be  the  fossilized  excrement  and  re- 
mains of  fish-eating  animals  which  lived  ages  ago.  These 
fossil  deposits  are  found  in  South  Carolina,  Florida,  and 
Tennessee.  The  rock  is  dug  out  and  ground  very  fine  and 
then  it  is  ready  to  apply  to  the  land.  Rock  phosphate  is  quite 
variable  in  its  content.  The  South  Carolina  rock  contains 
about  26  per  cent.,  the  best  grades  of  Florida  rock  about  40 
per  cent.,  and  the  Tennessee  rock  from  30  to  32  per  cent,  of 
phosphoric  acid.  The  rock  phosphate  is  very  slowly  avail- 
able. 2.  Basic  or  phosphoric  slag,  also  called  Thomas  slag, 
is  a  by-product  in  the  making  of  certain  kinds  of  steel.  It 
comes  in  the  form  of  a  fine  powder  and  contains  15  to  20  per 
cent,  of  phosphoric  acid.  There  is  also  a  good  deal  of  lime  and 
oxide  of  iron  mixed  with  it.  3.  The  manufactured  phosphate 
is  frequently  called  a  super-phosphate.  A  super-phosphate  is 
a  phosphoric  acid  fertilizer  in  which  the  phosphoric  acid  is 
quickly  available.  Super-phosphates  are  made  by  treating 
ground  bone  or  ground  rock  phosphate  with  sulphuric  acid. 
Such  treatment  dissolves  the  original  material  and  makes 
new  combinations  which  are  more  easily  dissolved  in  the  soil. 
(1)  Dissolved  bone  is  ground  bone  treated  with  sulphuric 
acid  and  contains  about  2  per  cent,  nitrogen  and  13  per  cent, 
of  phosphoric  acid.  (2)  Acid  phosphate,  or  dissolved  rock, 
is  made  by  treating  ground  rock  phosphate  with  sulphuric 
acid.    The  amount  of  phosphoric  acid  in  the  acid  phosphate 


60  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

will  depend  upon  the  amount  in  the  rock  used.  Acid  phos- 
phate is  very  extensively  used. 

The  potash  fertilizers  are  also  from  organic  and  chemical 
sources.  1.  The  chief  organic  source  is  ashes,  wood  ashes 
being  the  common  source.  The  amount  of  potash  in  wood 
ashes  differs  with  the  kind  of  wood  from  which  the  ashes  are 
obtained,  as,  for  example,  the  unleached  ashes  from  oak 
contain  about  10  per  cent,  of  potash,  from  beech  16  per  cent., 
from  elm  24  per  cent.  Hard  wood  contains  more  potash  than 
soft  wood.  Ashes  also  contain  large  quantities  of  lime  and 
small  quantities  of  phosphoric  acid,  magnesia,  and  soda. 
Unleached  ashes  are  the  only  kind  that  should  be  used  as  a 
fertilizer.  By  leached  ashes  we  mean  ashes  that  have  been  so 
soaked  by  water  that  the  potash  has  dissolved  and  run  away. 
2.  Tobacco  stems  contain  from  6  to  10  per  cent,  potash,  and 
are  much  used  for  mixed  fertilizers. 

The  chief  chemical  source  of  potash  is  the  German  pot- 
ash mines  in  Germany.  At  Stassfurt  in  Germany  there 
are  large  deposits  of  salts  which  are  rich  in  potash.  1.  Kainit 
is  the  name  of  one  of  these  salts  which  is  sold  on  the  market 
without  having  been  treated  in  any  way  except  grinding.  It 
contains  about  12  to  13  per  cent,  of  potash.  It  has  consid- 
erable magnesia  and  common  salt  mixed  with  it.  Kainit  is 
rather  quickly  available  when  applied  to  the  land.  2.  Muri- 
ate of  potash  is  the  name  given  to  a  potash  fertilizer  made 
from  certain  kinds  of  the  German  salts  by  a  process  called 
recrystallization.  It  €ontains  about  50  per  cent,  of  actual 
potash  and  is  considered  the  cheapest  source  of  potash  for 
fertilizing.  It  is  very  extensively  used.  3.  Sulphate  of  pot- 
ash is  another  potash  fertilizer  made  from  the  German  salts, 
by  the  process  of  recrystallization  in  which  those  crystals  con- 


COMMERCIAL   FERTILIZERS  61 

taining  mostly  sulphate  of  potash  are  separated  out.  There 
are  two  grades :  the  high  grade  sulphate  of  potash  contains 
51  to  53  per  cent,  of  potash,  and  the  low  grade  about  26 
per  cent. 

Besides  the  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  fertilizers, 
there  are  other  materials  which  are  frequently  applied  to  the 
land,  sometimes  to  add  an  element  of  plant  food  to  the  soil, 
but  more  often  for  the  effect  which  they  will  have  upon  the 
soil  in  improving  its  texture.  Such  fertilizers  are  called  indi- 
rect fertilizers.  Lime  is  often  put  on  land  because  the  soil  is 
lacking  in  lime,  but  more  often  because  the  land  is  "sour," 
and  the  lime  will  sweeten  it.  Lime  also  makes  compact  soils 
more  crumbly,  hence  more  easily  worked.  Leached  ashes 
and  coal  ashes  add  nothing  in  the  way  of  plant  food,  but  the 
leached  ashes  will  furnish  a  good  deal  of  lime.  Common  salt 
is  sometimes  applied  to  land,  especially  sandy  soil.  It  helps 
the  soil  to  hold  moisture  and  also  aids  somewhat  in  making 
lime  and  potash  available.  Large  quantities  will  injure  the 
plants.  Land  plaster  or  gypsum  is  also  often  applied  for  the 
lime  which  it  contains.  Where  it  can  easily  be  obtained  marl 
is  used  for  supplying  lime.  It  is  especially  good  for  sandy 
lands,  because  there  is  often  a  good  deal  of  clay  mixed  with 
the  marl  which  tends  to  make  the  sand  more  compact.  Fine 
ground  limestone  is  one  of  the  best  indirect  fertilizers.  It  will 
sweeten  sour  land  as  quickly  as  lime  and  will  not  burn  out  the 
organic  matter  as  lime  does.  Ground  limestone  should  be 
applied  at  the  rate  of  two  tons  or  more  per  acre.  Usually 
autumn  is  the  best  time  to  apply  it. 

The  best  way  to  find  out  what  elements  of  plant  food  are 
needed  in  the  soil  is  by  actual  experiment  on  land.  A  small 
area  which  represents  the  whole  field  fairly  well  is  laid  out 


62 


AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 


in  plots  and  each  fertilized  differently.  When  the  crop  is 
harvested  and  weighed  and  the  results  compared,  one  can  tell 
which  fertilizer  did  the  most  good. 

Ordinarily  fertilizers  are  applied  from  a  box  fitted  to  the 
machine  which  plants  or  sows  the  seed.  In  the  case  of  wheat 
and  oats  the  drill  usually  has  a  box  into  which  fertilizer  can 


4 


12.       APPLYING    LIME    TO    LAND    WITH    A    SPECIAL    MACHINE 
By  courtesy  of  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station 

be  put  and  sown  at  the  same  time  as  the  grain.  Many  corn 
planters  have  fertilizer  attachments  which  scatter  the  fertilizer 
in  the  row.  For  some  garden  and  truck  crops  it  is  desirable 
to  put  the  fertilizer  in  the  hill  or  the  row  where  the  roots  can 
easily  get  the  plant  food.  Care  must  be  used  in  such  cases, 
for  the  dissolved  fertilizer  may  be  so  strong  as  to  kill  the  roots 
of  the  plants. 

Stable  manures,  clover,  and  a  good  rotation  of  crops  should 


COMMERCIAL   FERTILIZERS  63 

always  be  used  in  connection  with  commercial  fertilizers. 
By  so  doing  the  humus  in  the  soil  will  be  maintained  and  the 
fertilizers  will  be  more  effective.  If  fertilizers  are  used  alone, 
the  humus  becomes  exhausted,  the  soil  becomes  hard  and 
compact,  and  the  fertilizers  fail  to  give  the  desired  results. 


SECTION  II— FARM  CROPS 

CHAPTER  VIII 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  FARM  CROPS 

Before  we  begin  to  study  about  the  different  crops  that 
farmers  raise,  it  will  be  well  for  us  to  classify  them  into  a  few 
groups  by  which  they  are  commonly  mentioned. 

1.  Cereals. — By  cereals  is  meant  those  crops  which  belong 
to  the  grass  family  and  whose  seeds  are  made  into  flour  which 
is  used  for  bread.  The  principal  cereal  crops  are  corn,  wheat, 
oats,  rye,  barley,  rice,  and  millet.  Rice  and  millet  are  scarcely 
ever  used  for  bread  in  this  country,  but  in  India  and  China 
they  are  used  extensively. 

2.  Legumes. — We  are  all  familiar  with  the  appearance  of 
the  blossoms  of  the  garden  pea  and  of  sweet  peas.  There  are 
many  plants  which  have  similar  blossoms.  All  such  plants 
are  called  legumes.  Some  of  the  common  legumes  are  alfalfa, 
all  of  the  clovers,  cow-peas,  soy  beans,  peas,  beans,  and 
vetches.  Legumes  are  desirable  plants  for  the  farmer  to 
raise  because  they  have  nodules  on  the  roots  in  which  live 
bacteria  that  collect  nitrogen  from  the  air.  Some  of  this  nitro- 
gen is  stored  in  the  leaves  and  stems  of  the  plants  and  some 
remains  in  the  nodules  on  the  roots.  When  the  plant  is  used 
for  feed  it  makes  a  richer  food  than  such  plants  as  timothy  or 
blue  grass.  Also,  when  the  plant  dies  the  roots  remaining  in 
the  ground  contain  more  nitrogen  than  the  roots  of  other 

64 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   FARM   CROPS  65 

plants.  This  makes  the  soil  richer  in  nitrogen  and  so  better 
for  the  crop  that  follows.  Nearly  all  legumes  have  a  strong 
main  root,  called  a  tap  root,  which  grows  deep  into  the  ground. 
When  they  die  the  tap  roots  have  a  tendency  to  leave  the 
soil  looser  than  do  the  roots  of  plants  which  are  smaller. 

3.  Roots. — Certain  crops  like  beets,  turnips,  carrots, 
parsnips,  and  radishes  are  called  root  crops.  When  quite 
young  these  plants  have  a  long,  slender  tap  root  which  gets 
larger  as  the  plant  gets  older.  It  is  the  enlarged  tap  roots 
then  which  form  the  root  crop.  These  tap  roots,  however, 
do  not  have  nodules  on  them  like  the  legumes  and  so  do  not 
gather  nitrogen.  Root  crops  are  used  for  feed  for  live  stock, 
and  nearly  all  kinds  may  also  be  used  for  human  food. 

4.  Tubers. — A  tuber  is  an  enlarged  underground  stem. 
If  we  examine  a  potato  plant  carefully  we  shall  find  that  the 
stem  above  the  ground  continues  underground  as  a  somewhat 
smaller  white  root-like  stem.  At  the  end  of  this  root-like  stem 
will  be  found  an  enlargement,  the  potato  or  tuber.  The  same 
examination  will  show  that  the  real  roots  start  from  the  base 
of  the  above-ground  stem  and  are  quite  different  from  the 
underground  stem.  Irish  potatoes,  sweet  potatoes  and  arti- 
chokes are  examples  of  tubers. 

5.  Bulbs. — Doubtless  we  all  know  enough  about  botany 
to  know  that  a  leaf  is  made  up  of  two  parts:  the  expanded 
part,  or  blade,  and  the  stem,  or  petiole ,  which  connects  the 
blade  to  the  stem  of  the  plant.  This  petiole  is  quite  easily 
made  out  in  the  leaves  of  trees,  but  in  such  plants  as  onions 
and  tulips  it  is  not  so  easily  seen.  That  which  we  call  the 
onion  is  nothing  but  the  enlarged  and  thickened  petioles  of 
the  onion  leaves.  The  blades  of  the  leaves  in  the  case  of  the 
onion  are  curiously  changed.    So  we  say  that  a  bidb  is  the  en- 


66  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

larged  and  thickened  petioles  of  the  leaves.  The  onion  is  our 
only  bulb  farm  crop,  but  tulips  and  hyacinths  are  other 
examples  of  bulbs. 

6.  Fibre  Crops. — Any  plant  that  furnishes  material  out  of 
which  cloth  or  rope  is  made  is  called  a  -fibre  plant.  Cotton, 
flax,  and  hemp  are  common  crops  in  the  United  States  from 
which  fibres  are  obtained  to  make  cloth,  twine,  and  ropes. 
Jute,  sisal,  and  manila  hemp  are  obtained  from  plants  grown 
mostly  in  other  countries. 

7.  Forage  Crops. — The  term  forage  crop  is  used  for  a  good 
many  crops.  It  means  one  that  is  used  for  coarse  feed  like 
hay,  fodder,  stover,  straw,  silage,  or  pasture.  Crops  that  are 
employed  for  other  purposes  may  also  be  used  as  forage  crops. 
For  example,  wheat  is  raised  principally  for  its  grain,  but  it 
may  be  cut  green  and  made  into  hay  and  thus  become  a 
forage  crop.  Forage  crops  will  be  more  fully  explained  in 
another  chapter. 

8.  Miscellaneous  Crops. — There  are  many  other  crops 
that  are  raised  on  the  farm  that  we  cannot  so  easily  classify. 
Some  of  them  are :  tobacco,  broom  corn,  hops,  mint,  tomatoes, 
etc.     These  have  to  be  considered  separately. 


CHAPTER  IX 
CORN 

In  the  next  few  chapters  we  shall  study  about  some  of  the 
principal  crops  grown  for  their  seeds.  Some  of  them  are  used 
for  other  purposes  besides  seed  production,  but  these  will  be 
spoken  of  later.  We  shall  speak  briefly  of  the  history, 
culture,  and  uses  of  the  various  crops.  Before  beginning  we 
need  to  explain  that  by  culture  we  mean  the  soil  to  which  a 
crop  is  adapted,  and  the  way  of  planting,  cultivating  and 
caring  for  the  crop. 

Maize  or  Indian  Corn. — The  plant  that  we  call  corn  is 
strictly  an  American  plant.  It  is  the  only  cereal  that  the  New 
World  has  given  to  civilization.  Corn  has  not  been  found 
growing  wild,  but  a  great  deal  of  evidence  goes  to  show  that 
its  native  home  was  in  Mexico  and  Central  America.  When 
the  early  settlers  came  to  America  they  found  the  Indians  rais- 
ing corn.  The  settlers  soon  learned  its  usefulness,  and  find- 
ing how  easy  it  was  to  raise,  they  soon  grew  it  wherever  they 
went.  To-day  it  is  grown  in  every  state  of  the  Union.  The 
corn  crop  is  four  times  as  large  in  number  of  bushels  as  that 
of  any  other  grain  crop  in  the  United  States.  Iowa,  Illinois, 
Missouri,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Indiana  and  Ohio  produce 
more  than  half  of  the  corn  raised  in  the  United  States.  These 
states  form  the  so-called  "corn  belt." 

Kinds  of  Corn. — There  are  six  kinds  of  corn,  namely:  dent, 
flint,  sweet,  pop,  pod,  and  soft  corn.     More  care  has  been 

67 


68  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

given  to  the  cultivation  of  the  first  four  than  to  the  last  two. 
The  number  of  varieties  of  each  is  very  great. 

Dent  corn  is  the  kind  raised  in  all  the  principal  corn- 
growing  states.  It  has  a  rather  long  kernel  which  has  a  dent 
in  the  top.  This  dent  is  caused  by  the  shrinking  of  the  kernel 
at  the  centre  more  than  elsewhere  when  it  begins  to  get  ripe. 
Dent  corn  produces  the  largest  ears  of  any  kind  of  corn.    The 


13.      PUTTING   IN   SHOCK   IS   A    GOOD    WAY   TO    SAVE   THE    CORN   FODDER 
UNTIL   IT    IS    READY   TO    BE    SHREDDED 

By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station 

varieties  have  variously  colored  kernels.  Three  hundred  and 
twenty-three  varieties  have  been  described. 

Flint  corn  has  a  short  and  rounded  kernel  which  is  quite 
hard.  It  has  no  dent  in  the  top.  An  ear  of  flint  corn  is  quite 
smooth  and  does  not  have  so  many  rows  of  kernels  as  an  ear 
of  dent  corn.  Flint  corn  does  not  take  so  long  to  mature  and 
so  is  raised  in  our  most  northern  states  and  in  Canada.  The 
stalks  and  ears  do  not  get  so  large  as  those  of  dent  corn. 

Sweet  corn  usually  has  a  shrivelled  kernel  which  is  sweet  to 
the  taste.  Sweet  corn  is  raised  by  farmers  and  truck  garden- 
ers largely  for  table  use  and  for  canning  purposes.    Farmers 


CORN  69 

rarely  raise  it  for  the  purpose  of  feeding  the  grain  to  cattle 
and  hogs.  Sweet  corn  has  a  larger  per  cent,  of  protein  and 
fat  than  other  kinds  of  corn.  There  are  sixty-three  or  more 
varieties. 

Pop-corn  is  raised  almost  entirely  for  selling  to  persons  who 
make  cracker-jack  and  pop-corn.  Neither  the  ears  nor  the 
stalks  grow  very  large.  The  kernels  are  always  quite  hard 
and  flinty.  The  bursting  open  when  popped  is  said  to  be  due 
to  the  explosion  of  the  moisture  in  the  seed  when  heated. 
Some  varieties  of  pop-corn  have  quite  sharp-pointed  kernels; 
these  are  called  the  rice  varieties.  Others  have  quite  smooth 
and  blunt-pointed  kernels;  these  are  called  flint  or  pearl 
varieties.    There  are  twenty-five  or  more  varieties. 

Pod  corn  has  each  kernel  enclosed  in  a  chaff  somewhat  like 
a  kernel  of  wheat,  so  that  when  the  husk  is  removed  from  the 
ear  the  kernels  are  still  covered.  Pod  corn  is  raised  only  as  a 
curiosity. 

Soft  corn  has  kernels  resembling  the  flint  kernels,  but  they 
are  not  nearly  so  hard.  The  kernels  are  soft  and  floury  inside. 
Soft  corn  is  raised  somewhat  in  the  south-western  states  and 
in  Mexico.    Brazilian  flour-corn  is  a  soft  corn. 

The  size  of  the  ear  and  stalk  of  corn  is  quite  variable,  de- 
pending upon  variety  and  climate.  Dr.  Sturtevant  *  speaks 
of  a  variety  in  which  the  stalks  grow  only  about  18  inches  tall, 
while  in  the  West  Indies  stalks  sometimes  grow  as  high  as 
30  feet.  He  also  speaks  of  having  seen  ears  of  pop-corn  only 
an  inch  long  and  ears  of  dent  corn  sixteen  inches  long.  The 
flint  varieties  usually  have  eight  or  twelve  rows  of  kernels  to 
an  ear;  the  dent  varieties  usually  have  from  sixteen  to  twenty- 

*  See  15th  Biennial  Report  of  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture, 
p.  14. 


70  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

four  rows.  Dr.  Sturtevant  also  speaks  of  a  variety  which  ma- 
tures in  one  month  in  Paraguay,  while  seven  months  are  re- 
quired in  some  southern  countries.  The  stalks  and  ears  of 
varieties  raised  in  North  Dakota  and  other  northern  states  are 
much  smaller  than  those  of  varieties  raised  in  the  corn  belt  states. 

Soil  for  Corn. — Corn  will  grow  in  almost  any  soil  that  is 
not  too  wet  or  too  dry.  It  grows  best,  however,  in  a  well- 
drained  loam  soil  rich  in  organic  matter.  Muck  soils  are  apt 
to  be  lacking  in  potash  and  have  too  much  nitrogen  to  pro- 
duce good  solid  corn.  Sandy  soils  are  likely  to  get  too  dry  in 
July  and  August  for  corn  to  grow  well.  Heavy  clay  soils  are 
too  compact  unless  they  are  well  drained  and  plenty  of  coarse 
manure  is  used. 

Plowing  and  Preparing. — Land  for  corn  may  be  plowed 
in  autumn  or  spring.  If  autumn  plowed  the  supply  of  moist- 
ure is  apt  to  be  better  the  following  season.  Spring  plowing 
should  be  done  as  early  as  possible  in  order  to  save  moisture 
and  prevent  the  formation  of  a  crust  which  will  turn  under 
cloddy.  The  plowing  should  be  well  done  so  that  the  futrow- 
slice  is  well  pulverized.  The  land  should  then  be  thoroughly 
harrowed  with  a  spike-tooth  harrow  to  level  it  and  pulverize 
the  clods.  If  autumn  plowed,  the  land  will  usually  need  to 
be  disked  before  harrowing.  It  can  sometimes  be  worked  up 
by  using  a  spring-tooth  harrow.  If  land  is  too  cloddy  it 
should  be  rolled  or  dragged.  Dragging  is  better,  if  it  will 
crush  the  clods,  because  the  drag  does  not  pack  the  ground  so 
much  as  a  roller.  In  either  case  the  land  should  be  harrowed 
again  soon  to  loosen  the  surface  and  prevent  evaporation. 
It  is  desirable  to  have  the  field  dragged  just  before  planting, 
for  then  the  planter  can  be  driven  straighter  with  more  ease. 
It  will  also  do  no  harm  to  harrow  just  after  planting. 


CORN  71 

Planting. — When  the  seed  bed  is  in  good  condition  and  the 
soil  is  warm  enough  the  corn  should  be  planted.  Corn  is  a 
warm  weather  crop,  so  that  generally  it  pays  to  wait  until  the 
top  soil  has  warmed  up.  It  is  usually  planted  in  May  in  the 
corn  belt  states.  The  two-horse  check-row  planter  is  now 
used  almost  entirely  by  farmers.  Only  very  small  fields  are 
planted  by  hand.  Corn  is  planted  either  in  hills  or  in  drills. 
There  is  really  no  difference  as  to  the  amount  of  corn  that 
can  be  raised  by  the  two  methods.  The  corn  in  drills  is  not 
so  easy  to  keep  free  from  weeds,  for  such  corn  has  to  be  culti- 
vated in  one  direction  all  the  time  and  the  weeds  get  sl  start  in 
the  row  unless  the  early  cultivation  has  been  carefully  done. 
It  is  desirable  to  have  two  to  three  kernels  of  corn  dropped  in 
each  hill  when  hilling  it,  or  a  kernel  about  every  sixteen  inches 
when  drilling  it.  The  seed  should  usually  be  covered  about 
one-and-a-half  to  two  inches  deep.  In  the  drier  regions  of  the 
west  and  sometimes  on  sandy  ground  corn  is  listed,  that  is,  it 
is  planted  in  a  furrow,  four  or  five  inches  below  the  level  of  the 
ground.  A  machine  called  a  lister,  throws  open  a  furrow,  and 
drops  and  covers  the  corn  in  the  bottom  of  it.  Listing  is  not 
desirable  where  there  is  a  heavy  rainfall. 

Cultivation. — If  necessary,  the  cultivation  of  corn  can 
begin  before  it  is  very  large,  even  before  the  young  plants  are 
out  of  the  ground.  If,  by  reason  of  wet  weather,  the  weeds 
get  a  start,  the  field  may  be  harrowed  with  a  spike-tooth  har- 
row, or  by  following  the  rows  made  by  the  planter  wheels, 
a  sulky  corn  cultivator  may  be  used.  Usually,  however,  cul- 
tivation does  not  begin  until  the  young  corn  plants  are  three 
or  four  inches  high,  and,  if  the  seed  bed  has  been  well  pre- 
pared, it  will  usually  not  be  necessary  to  commence  sooner. 

Corn  should  be  cultivated  often  enough  to  keep  down  weeds 


72  AGRICULTURE   FOR   COMMON   SCHOOLS 

and  to  save  the  moisture.  The  soil  should  be  stirred  after 
every  rain  as  soon  as  it  is  dry  enough  to  work,  for  only  by 
keeping  the  top  two  or  three  inches  loosened  from  the  under 
soil  can  the  loss  of  moisture  be  prevented.  Even  if  no  rain 
falls  and  the  weeds  are  all  killed,  the  soil  needs  to  be  stirred 
about  every  week  or  ten  days,  for  the  soil  mulch  will  lose  its 
effectiveness.  Cultivation  should  be  kept  up  until  the  plants 
begin  to  tassel  out.    By  this  time  the  plants  will  be  too  large 


14.       A    HARROW    TOOTH    CULTIVATOR 

A  good  tool  for  preserving  a  soil  mulch  in  tall  com 

By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station 

to  pass  under  the  arch  of  the  cultivator  without  breaking  off. 
Further  cultivation  can  be  given  with  a  single  horse  and  culti- 
vator.   However,  this  is  scarcely  ever  done. 

The  cultivation  should  be  about  two  to  three  inches  deep. 
This  depth  has  been  found  better  for  saving  moisture  than  a 
lesser  depth.  If  the  ground  is  stirred  deeper  than  three  inches 
there  is  danger  of  disturbing  the  roots.  When  corn  is  about 
a  foot  and  a  half  high  the  roots  extend  entirely  across  the 
middle  from  one  row  to  the  other,  and  deep  cultivation  will 
break  these  off  and  thus  check  the  growth  of  the  plants.    In 


CORN  73 

cultivating,  the  surface  should  be  left  as  level  as  possible  so 
that  there  is  no  increased  opportunity  for  evaporation. 

Harvesting. — The  feeding  value  of  the  stalk  and  the  grain 
is  greatest  when  the  lower  leaves  of  the  stalk  have  begun  to 
ripen  and  when  the  kernels  of  the  ears  are  glazed  over  and 
have  begun  to  dent  and  the  husks  are  drying  up.  If  corn  is 
either  to  be  shocked  or  put  into  the  silo,  the  cutting  should  be 
done  at  this  time.  By  far  the  largest  part  of  the  corn  crop  is 
allowed  to  ripen  on  the  stalk,  but  by  so  doing  about  half  of 
the  feeding  value  of  the  stalks  is  lost.  Cutting  the  corn  in- 
sures a  more  profitable  use  of  the  entire  plant.  Formerly  corn 
was  cut  entirely  by  hand  and  put  into  shocks,  but  now  many 
farmers  have  corn  binders,  some  of  which  both  cut  and  shock 
the  corn.  Shocks  should  be  made  large,  so  that  there  will  be 
as  little  fodder  exposed  to  the  weather  as  possible.  However, 
they  must  not  be  so  large  that  they  will  not  dry  out  well. 
Shocks  containing  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  twenty 
hills  are  about  the  right  size  to  dry  out  properly. 

Before  going  further  we  must  explain  two  words.  The 
word  "fodder"  means  the  entire  plant  before  the  ears  are 
husked.  The  word  "stover"  is  applied  to  the  stalk  after  the 
corn  is  husked.  Formerly  the  husking  was  all  done  by  hand, 
but  now  much  of  it  is  done  by  machinery.  When  the  corn 
is  dry  enough  to  husk,  and  this  is  when  the  grains  will  shell 
off  the  cob,  the  fodder  is  run  through  a  machine  which 
snaps  off  the  ears,  pulls  off  the  husks,  and  at  the  same 
time,  tears  up  the  stover  into  shreds.  The  ears  run  out  of  a 
chute  into  a  wagon-box.  This  is  called  husking  and  shred- 
ding. The  shredded  stover  is  blown  into  a  mow  where  it  is 
convenient  for  feeding.  The  ears  are  usually  put  into  a  crib 
or  hauled  to  market,  or  they  may  be  used  for  feeding  at  once. 


74  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

When  the  fodder  is  left  standing  in  the  field  the  ears  are 
husked  by  hand  as  soon  as  dry  enough,  and  then  the  stover  is 
pastured  off  by  live  stock.  A  machine  is  being  perfected  now 
which  husks  the  corn  from  the  standing  stalks  and  elevates 
the  ears  into  the  wagon  box.  It  works  very  much  like  the 
corn  binder. 

Saving  Seed. — About  the  time  the  husks  are  beginning 
to  dry  the  farmer  should  gather  ears  for  seed  for  next  year. 
He  should  take  a  sack  or  basket  and  go  through  the  field, 
picking  such  ears  as  look  to  be  good  seed  ears.  Ears  should 
be  chosen  from  stalks  of  medium  height  which  are  strong  at 
the  base  and  taper  toward  the  top  and  which  stand  up  well. 
The  ear  should  be  growing  about  midway  on  the  stalk,  high 
enough  to  be  easily  husked.  Ears  whose  tips  are  pointing 
down  should  be  chosen  rather  than  those  whose  tips  point 
upward. 

After  being  gathered  the  ears  should  be  hung  up  in  a  shaded 
place  where  the  air  has  free  movement.  Many  farmers  col- 
lect the  ears  with  some  of  the  husks  on  and  then  tie  two  ears 
together  by  the  husks  and  hang  them  over  a  pole,  or  on  a 
nail  driven  in  a  rafter  in  the  wood  shed  or  tool  house  or  corn 
crib.  (See  Fig.  15.)  The  ears  are  allowed  to  dry  here  until 
cold  weather,  then  removed  to  a  dry  place  where  they  will 
not  freeze.  Corn  saved  in  this  way  will  be  sure  to  grow  next 
spring  and  the  farmer  will  have  no  trouble  in  getting  a  good 
stand  of  plants. 

Testing. — When  seed  corn  is  selected  at  husking  time  care 
cannot  be  given  to  the  kind  of  stalk  on  which  the  ear  grew. 
The  vitality  of  the  seed  may  also  have  been  injured  by  frosts 
and  freezing  weather.  Such  corn  should  be  tested  before 
planting  in  the  spring.     Corn  is  tested  by  planting  several 


15-       TWO 'GOOD    WAYS   TO    DRY   SEED   CORN 

The  upper  picture  shows  the  seed  ears  hung  to  rafters  of  the  tool  shed;  the  lower 
picture  shows  racks  made  of  lath  and  six-inch  boards.  Every  farmer  can* use  one 
or  the  other  of  these  schemes. 

By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station 


76 


AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 


kernels,  usually  five,  from  each  ear  in  a  box  in  a  moderately 
warm  room.  If  four  out  of  five  kernels  grow  the  ear  is  fit  for 
seed,  but  it  is  better  to  have  every  kernel  grow.  There  are 
many  ways  of  testing  the  kernels,  but  the  use  of  a  box  like 
that  in  Fig.  16  is  good.  The  box  is  about  18  inches  wide, 
24  inches  long  and  2  inches  deep  and  filled  with  garden  soil 


1 6.      TESTING    VITALITY  OF  CORN — THIS  IS  ONE  OF  THE   GOOD   METHODS 
By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station 


over  which  is  a  half -inch  of  clean  sand.  The  top  is  divided 
into  one  and  a  half  inch  squares  by  means  of  wire.  The  five 
kernels  from  each  ear  are  placed  in  a  square.  The  ears  may 
be  tagged  to  correspond  with  the  squares  or  be  laid  in  regular 
order  on  a  rack.  When  the  squares  are  filled  the  kernels  are 
pressed  into  the  soil  and  the  soil  dampened.  The  box  is  now 
covered  with  glass  or  loosely  woven  cloth  and  put  into  a  room 
having  a  temperature  of  about  70°  F.     In  five  days  all  the 


CORN  77 

kernels  should  be  sprouted.  (It  may  be  necessary  to  wet  the 
soil  again  during  this  time.)  In  examining  the  kernels  care 
should  be  taken  to  notice  whether  or  not  both  the  stalk  end 
and  the  root  end  of  the  germ  have  grown.  Sometimes  only 
one  end  grows.  Such  kernels  should  be  discarded.  Since 
one  ordinary  sized  ear  will  plant  one-fourteenth  of  an  acre, 
the  importance  of  having  every  ear  a  good  one  is  easily  seen. 

Choosing  the  Seed  Ears. — The  details  for  choosing  the 
seed  ears  cannot  all  be  given  here.  In  the  first  place  an  ear 
of  medium  size  should  be  chosen,  the  rows  should  be  straight, 
and  the  ear  should  taper  but  very  little  from  the  butt  to  the 
tip.  The  kernels  should  keep  their  size  out  to  the  end  of  the 
tip,  and  there  should  be  as  many  rows  at  the  tip  as  there  are 
at  the  butt.  There  should  be  but  few  irregularly  shaped  ker- 
nels at  the  butt  or  tip.  The  kernels  should  round  out  well 
over  the  cob  at  the  butt  and  should  come  as  near  covering  the 
cob  at  the  tip  as  possible.  However,  it  is  better  to  have  a 
little  of  the  cob  exposed  at  the  tip  than  to  have  it  covered  with 
a  large  number  of  small,  flinty  kernels.  The  kernels  should 
fit  up  tightly  together  at  the  cob,  and  there  should  be  very 
little  space  between  the  rows  on  the  outside.  The  kernels 
should  not  be  sharply  rough,  neither  should  they  be  smooth. 
They  should  be  longer  than  wide  and  taper  just  a  little  from 
the  crown  to  the  tip.  When  removed  from  the  cob  the  tip  of 
a  kernel  should  not  break  off  showing  a  black  end.  Such 
kernels  are  not  well  matured.  The  back  of  the  kernel  should 
be  clear  and  flinty  looking.  The  color  should  be  uniform 
whether  it  be  yellow,  white,  red  or  speckled.  Kernels  of  any 
other  color  or  different  shades  of  the  same  color  show  mixture. 

Preparing  for  the  Planter.— After  selecting  and  testing, 
the  ears  are  ready  to  be  shelled.    The  shelling  should  not  be 


17- 


GOOD    SEED    EARS 
straight  rows,  uniform  kernels,  and  well-formed 


Notice  the  cylindrical  shape, 
butts  and  tips. 

By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station 


l8.       POOR    SEED    EARS 

Notice  that  these  ears  show  characteristics  just  opposite  to  those  in  the  cut  above 

By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station 


CORN  79 

done,  however,  very  long  before  planting,  for  if  put  into  large 
bags  the  kernels  may  "heat"  and  spoil  the  vitality.  The  tips 
and  butts  are  shelled  off  and  not  planted  because  the  planter 
will  not  plant  them  accurately,  and  usually  the  tips  will  not 
grow  so  well  as  the  middle  kernels.  In  shelling,  the  long- 
kerneled  ears  should  be  shelled  separately  from  the  short- 
kerneled  ears.  The  planter  plates  should  be  tested  so  as  to 
get  the  plate  that  will  drop  the  desired  number  of  kernels 
each  time.  Having  found  the  right  size  it  should  be  marked 
so  that  at  planting  time  no  mistake  will  be  made. 

All  of  this  seems  like  a  good  deal  of  care  to  take  with  the 
corn  crop,  but  a  big  yield  cannot  be  obtained  from  careless 
work.  The  average  yield  per  acre  for  the  corn  belt  states  is 
near  thirty  bushels  per  acre,  but  many  careful  farmers  are 
averaging  seventy-five  bushels,  and  many  frequently  raise 
a  hundred  bushels  per  acre.  Such  farmers  take  great  care  in 
selecting  and  preparing  their  seed  corn  and  then  use  equally 
as  great  care  in  planting  and  cultivating  the  crop. 


CHAPTER  X 
WHEAT 

Wheat  is  probably  the  oldest  known  cereal.  The  oldest 
books  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge  speak  of  wheat,  and 
specimens  have  been  found  in  places  which  indicate  that 
wheat  was  known  before  our  oldest  books  were  written. 
Without  doubt  wheat  is  a  native  of  that  part  of  the  Old 
World  where  civilization  first  began.  There  are  several 
mythological  stories  of  its  origin,  one  of  which  places  its  ori- 
gin in  Sicily,  whence  it  was  distributed  to  Greece,  Egypt 
and  China.  The  earliest  descriptions  and  the  oldest  speci- 
mens seem  to  show  that  wheat  has  had  for  centuries  the  same 
appearance  that  it  now  has.  Wheat  was  brought  to  America 
by  the  earliest  explorers  and  settlers. 

Wheat  grows  successfully  through  a  very  wide  range  of 
latitude.  In  North  America  it  will  grow  as  far  north  as  60 
degrees,  and  good  crops  can  be  raised  in  Cuba.  In  the  Old 
World,  good  crops  are  raised  in  Egypt  and  Algeria,  and  as  far 
north  as  64  degrees  in  Norway.  Extreme  heat  does  not  seem 
to  be  injurious  unless  it  is  accompanied  by  too  much  dryness 
or  too  much  moisture.  However,  there  is  a  great  deal  of 
difference  in  the  quality  of  wheat  under  these  ranges  of  tem- 
perature. That  grown  in  the  colder  climates  has  a  harder 
grain  than  that  grown  in  warmer  regions.  The  nitrogenous 
element  in  wheat  is  called  gluten.    When  wheat  is  chewed  a 

80 


WHEAT  81 

while  in  the  mouth  a  sticky  mass  Hke  chewing  gum  is  ob- 
tained. This  is  gluten.  The  more  elastic  this  gluten  is  the 
better  such  wheat  will  be  for  making  flour  to  be  used  for 
bread.  The  hard,  red,  flinty  wheats  have  the  best  quality  of 
gluten,  and  hence  make  the  highest  grade  of  flour.  The 
whiter,  softer  and  more  starchy  wheats  make  good  flour  for 
pastry  purposes.  Wheat  raised  on  soil  rich  in  humus,  in  a 
climate  where  the  summers  are  dry  and  hot,  usually  has  hard 
red  kernels  which  contain  gluten  of  the  best  quality  for  bread 
making. 

Even  in  the  United  States  there  is  so  much  variation  in  the 
quality  of  wheat,  due  mainly  to  climate,  that  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  has  divided  it  into  eight 
wheat  districts.  We  cannot  give  a  detailed  account  of  each 
of  these  districts,  but  it  will  probably  be  enough  to  say  that 
the  wheat  of  the  southern  and  New  England  states  gener- 
ally is  rather  soft  and  starchy  and  does  not  make  good  flour. 
The  wheat  grown  in  the  states  north  of  the  Ohio  River  has 
a  harder  grain,  but  not  hard  enough  to  make  the  highest 
grade  of  flour.  The  spring  wheat  grown  in  the  Northwest 
and  the  winter  wheat  of  Iowa,  Nebraska  and  Kansas  have 
the  hardest  grains  and  make  the  highest  grade  of  flour.  In 
parts  of  Texas,  Oklahoma,  Kansas  and  South  Dakota  durum 
wheat  is  being  raised  extensively.  This  wheat  is  better 
adapted  to  dry  and  hot  summers  than  other  kinds  of  wheat. 
Durum  wheat  is  used  largely  in  making  macaroni,  and  on 
this  account  is  frequently  called  macaroni  wheat.  The  wheat 
raised  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  and  coast  states  is  generally 
white  in  color,  soft  and  starchy.  Hard  wheats  taken  into  this 
region  and  grown  for  a  few  years  change  so  that  they  become 
soft  and  starchy. 


82  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

Kinds  of  Wheat. — There  are  eight  kinds  of  wheat:  com- 
mon bread,  club  or  square  head,  poulard,  durum,  polish, 
spelt,  emmer,  and  einkorn. 

Common  bread  wheat.  With  this  group  almost  every  boy 
and  girl  in  the  central  states  is  familiar.  The  varieties  of  this 
class  furnish  most  of  the  wheat  flour  used  for  making  bread. 

Club  or  square  head  wheat.  In  this  class  the  heads  are 
usually  a  little  larger  at  the  top  than  at  the  base  and  are  quite 
distinctly  four-cornered.  The  varieties  of  this  class  have  stiff 
straw  and  the  heads  do  not  shatter  easily.  The  grain  is  used 
largely  for  making  crackers  and  breakfast  foods. 

Poulard  wheat  has  stiff  straw,  stands  dry  weather  well,  and  is 
not  attacked  by  leaf  rust.  It  is  raised  mostly  in  the  Old  World 
countries.    Some  varieties  are  used  for  making  macaroni. 

Durum  wheat.  The  gluten  in  this  wheat  is  of  excellent 
quality  and  the  grain  is  used  largely  for  making  macaroni 
and  similar  pastes.  The  wheat  stands  dry  weather  well  and 
is  not  attacked  by  leaf  rust. 

Polish  wheat  is  raised  mostly  in  countries  along  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea  and  is  used  for  making  macaroni. 

Spelt  is  very  little  used  for  human  food,  being  fed  mainly  to 
live  stock  as  oats  are  fed.  The  grain  is  always  held  tightly  in 
the  chaff  and  cannot  be  threshed  out.  Instead  of  shattering, 
the  head  of  spelt  breaks  in  pieces.  It  is  grown  mostly  in 
European  countries. 

Emmer  also  has  its  grain  held  in  the  chaff,  but  not  so  tightly 
as  that  of  spelt.  The  head  also  easily  breaks  in  pieces.  It 
is  nearly  always  sown  in  spring,  while  spelt  is  sown  in  the 
autumn.  Emmer  is  well  adapted  to  our  western  states  and  is 
being  grown  to  a  considable  extent  for  feeding  to  live  stock. 
In  Europe  it  is  used  by  the  peasants  for  food. 


WHEAT  83 

Einkorn  is  much  like  emmer,  but  is  not  at  all  improved 
over  the  wild  form.  It  is  entirely  unknown  in  the  United 
States  and  is  little  raised  in  Europe.  It  has  about  the  same 
characteristics  as  emmer  and  spelt. 

Characteristics  of  the  Common  Bread  Wheats. — As  the 
bread  wheat  varieties  are  practically  the  only  ones  grown  in 
the  central  states,  we  need  give  special  attention  only  to  this 
group.  The  varieties  may  be  divided  into  two  large  classes  in 
two  ways:  (1)  The  one  which  has  awns  or  beards  on  the 
heads,  called  bearded  varieties,  and  the  one  in  which  the 
heads  have  no  beards,  called  smooth  or  bald  varieties.  (2) 
White  varieties  in  which  the  grain  is  whitish  or  yellowish  in 
color,  and  red  varieties  which  have  their  grains  red  or  amber 
colored. 

There  is  very  little  difference  in  the  yielding  power  of  these 
different  classes.  The  Ohio  Experiment  Station  made  144 
trials  with  white  varieties  and  627  trials  with  red  varieties. 
The  white  averaged  27.3  bushels  per  acre  and  the  red  27.8 
bushels.  In  342  trials  bearded  varieties  gave  25.9  bushels 
per  acre  and  in  418  trials  smooth  varieties  made  26.4  bushels. 
These  differences  are  not  large  enough  for  us  to  favor  one 
more  than  the  other  so  far  as  yield  is  concerned.  The  fact  of 
the  matter  is  that  some  varieties  are  better  than  others,  and 
they  may  be  either  smooth  or  bearded,  or  they  may  be  either 
white  or  red. 

Red  wheat  as  a  rule  is  harder  grained  and  usually  contains 
a  better  quality  of  gluten.  For  this  reason  it  is  generally  pre- 
ferred for  making  flour  to  be  used  for  bread  making.  Bearded 
varieties  seem  to  be  more  liable  to  blow  down  or  lodge  when 
full  grown  than  smooth  varieties,  but  bearded  varieties  are 
attacked  by  rust  less  than  smooth  varieties.    This  same  state- 


84  AGRICULTURE   FOR   COMMON  SCHOOLS 

ment  is  true  concerning  red  and  white  varieties.  A  great 
many  varieties  of  wheat  are  introduced  into  the  United  States 
from  the  wheat  growing  regions  of  Turkey  and  Russia. 
Most  of  these  varieties  are  bearded,  weak-stemmed,  so  that 
they  lodge  easily,  and  have  hard,  red  grains  which  make  ex- 
cellent flour. 

A  farmer  in  selecting  a  variety  of  wheat  for  his  farm  should 
be  guided  by  his  soil  and  climate  and  the  experiences  of  his 
neighbors  as  well  as  his  own.  Some  varieties  are  better 
adapted  for  growing  on  clay  soils  than  on  loam  soils,  and  some 
do  better  in  rich  "bottom"  lands  than  others.  Then,  too, 
the  amount  of  rainfall  and  the  temperature  in  a  region  affect 
wheat  varieties.  Some  can  do  well  under  dry,  hot  conditions, 
while  others  will  be  failures  under  the  same  conditions. 

Wheat  Culture. — Soil. — Wheat  is  best  adapted  to  a  clay 
loam  soil.  It  should  not  be  sown  on  sandy  or  muck  soils.  It 
grows  too  rank  and  the  heads  do  not  fill  well  on  muck  soils, 
and  sandy  soils  are  apt  to  be  too  dry  at  heading  time  for  the 
heads  to  fill  well.  By  filling  is  meant  the  development  of  the 
kernels  in  the  heads. 

Preparing  the  Seed  Bed. — Wheat  will  usually  repay  all 
extra  pains  taken  in  the  making  of  a  proper  seed  bed.  A 
proper  seed  bed  is  one  that  has  about  two  and  a  half  to  three 
inches  of  fine  loose  soil  over  the  top  of  a  firm  under-soil. 
Such  a  seed-bed  permits  the  seed  to  be  covered  deep  enough 
and  at  the  same  time  induces  a  movement  of  capillary  moisture 
upward  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  young  plant  in  autumn. 

Land  for  wheat  is  usually  plowed  in  the  autumn.  The  ear- 
lier it  is  plowed  the  better.  It  is  better  to  plow  six  weeks 
before  sowing  than  two  weeks  or  one  week  before  sowing. 
As  soon  as  plowed  the  soil  should  be  rolled  and  harrowed. 


WHEAT  85 

If  it  is  mellow,  harrowing  may  be  all  that  is  necessary.  The 
object  of  early  plowing  and  preparing  is  to  allow  the  connec- 
tion of  the  furrow-slice  to  be  reestablished  with  the  under- 
soil. If  no  rolling  or  harrowing  is  done,  the  plowed  land 
will  dry  out  and  be  drier  than  if  it  had  not  been  plowed. 
The  field  should  be  harrowed  several  times  before  the  wheat 
is  sown.  If  it  is  plowed  six  weeks  before  sowing,  it  would 
be  well  to  harrow  once  a  week  until  the  wheat  is  sown.  This 
would  keep  the  weeds  killed  out  and  would  stir  the  soil  so 
that  the  sun  and  air  would  have  a  chance  to  make  plant  food 
ready  for  the  young  plants.  The  bacteria  in  the  soil  will  be 
more  active  when  the  soil  is  plowed  early  and  prepared  in 
this  way. 

Frequently  wheat  is  sown  in  standing  corn  or  after  the  corn 
has  been  cut.  On  fertile  land  this  will  usually  give  good  re- 
sults, but  the  wheat  can  hardly  ever  be  put  in  in  as  good  shape 
as  when  sown  on  plowed  land.  Also,  the  corn  plants  have 
used  up  a  good  deal  of  the  ready  plant  food  in  the  soil  and 
the  young  wheat  plants  are  likely  to  suffer  from  lack  of  food. 
If  wheat  is  sown  on  corn  ground,  the  land  should  be  cut  up 
with  a  disk  harrow  and  then  leveled  with  a  spike-tooth  harrow. 
A  spring-tooth  harrow  also  does  good  work  in  loosening  the 
soil  in  the  place  of  a  disk  harrow. 

Date  of  Sowing. — The  best  date  to  sow  wheat  cannot  be 
definitely  stated.  It  will  depend  mainly  upon  the  latitude  of 
the  place.  The  Hessian  fly  is  likely  to  attack  the  early  sown 
wheat,  and  when  there  is  danger  from  this  attack  sowing 
should  not  be  done  until  after  the  date  of  the  depositing  of 
the  fly's  eggs.  This  date  can  be  found  out  by  writing  to  the 
Entomologist  of  your  Experiment  Station.  It  is  desirable 
to  sow  rather  early  in  the  autumn,  if  possible,  because  in  so 


86  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

doing  the  wheat  plants  are  enabled  to  make  a  strong  growth 
and  so  better  stand  the  cold  weather  of  winter. 

Rate  of  Sowing. — Experiments  have  shown  that  six  to 
eight  pecks  of  wheat  sown  per  acre  will  give  better  yields  than 
less.  Most  farmers  do  not  sow  enough  seed.  Where  the  seed- 
ing is  not  thick  enough  the  plants  try  to  make  up  for  the  lack 
of  seed  by  "stooling"  or  "tillering."  By  tillering  is  meant 
the  starting  of  a  number  of  stalks  from  one  seed.  At  first 
only  one  stalk  starts,  but  when  conditions  are  favorable,  one, 
two,  three,  or  more,  extra  stalks  start  from  the  base  of  the 
first  plant,  so  that  there  may  be  several  heads  of  wheat  pro- 
duced from  one  seed.  Moist,  cool  weather  and  thin  sowing 
are  favorable  to  the  tillering  process.  However,  it  is  better 
to  sow  enough  seed  and  not  depend  upon  the  stooling  out. 

Wheat  should  be  sown  with  a  drill.  The  drill  distributes 
the  seed  more  evenly  and  covers  it  better,  thus  ensuring  a 
better  stand  of  plants.  Scattering  seed  by  hand,  or  broad- 
casting, is  an  old-time  method,  and  should  not  be  practised 
by  careful  farmers.  Where  sown  broadcast  the  seed  is  cov- 
ered with  a  harrow.  This  does  not  cover  evenly,  and  since 
the  seed  cannot  be  distributed  evenly  by  hand,  we  cannot 
expect  a  good  crop  from  such  a  method  of  sowing. 

Harvesting. — Wheat  is  ripe  when  the  kernels  are  no 
longer  soft  and  mushy.  This  can  be  told  by  pinching  the 
kernel  between  the  thumb  and  finger.  At  the  time  the  kernels 
begin  to  harden  the  stems  and  blades  begin  to  turn  yellow. 
Farmers  usually  tell  when  wheat  is  ripe  enough  to  cut  by 
the  yellow  color  of  the  straw.  Wheat  should  be  cut  as  soon  as 
the  kernel  becomes  hard  and  tough.  If  cut  later,  the  grain 
will  shatter  out  of  the  head  and  be  lost.  When  wheat  is  dead 
ripe  the  heads  begin  to  droop.    It  is  now  over-ripe  and  does 


WHEAT  87 

not  make  as  good  flour,  nor  as  large  a  quantity,  as  when  cut 
earlier. 

As  soon  as  cut  and  bound  by  the  binder  the  sheaves  may 
be  set  up  in  shocks.  A  shock  is  usually  composed  of  twelve 
sheaves,  ten  of  which  are  stood  upright  on  the  stubble  end  so 
as  to  make  a  round  or  long  shock.  The  other  two  are  bent 
at  the  band  and  put  on  top  of  the  shocks  as  ca'ps  to  keep  the 
inside  of  the  shock  from  getting  wet.  After  the  shocks  have 
stood  for  a  week  or  ten  days  they  may  be  threshed  or  they 
may  be  stacked  and  threshed  at  a  later  time.  Sometimes  the 
shocks  are  left  standing  for  several  weeks  before  threshing, 
but  this  is  risky,  because  of  the  loss  from  wet  weather  and  in 
some  cases  from  birds. 

Sweating. — When  wheat  is  first  stacked  it  draws  damp, 
"sweats"  as  the  farmers  say,  and  gets  warm.  This  is  a  per- 
fectly natural  process,  and  in  a  few  days  it  will  begin  to  cool 
off  and  dry  out.  This  sweating  improves  the  quality  of  the 
grain.  If  the  grain  is  threshed  before  it  sweats,  the  sweating 
will  take  place  in  the  bins,  and  here  it  frequently  gets  so  hot 
that  it  is  spoiled  for  future  use.  In  such  cases  the  wheat 
should  be  stirred  every  day  for  a  few  days. 


CHAPTER  XI 

OTHER  CEREALS 

Oats. — Oats  are  a  crop  that  was  brought  into  use  first  in 
the  Old  World.  Their  use  does  not  seem  to  be  so  old  as  that 
of  wheat,  but  they  have  been  known  and  used  for  centuries. 
They  are  raised  mostly  within  the  north  temperate  zone.  The 
north-central  part  of  the  United  States  and  Canada  grow 
most  of  the  oats  produced  in  America.  However,  oats  grow- 
ing is  extending  in  the  southern  states.  Oats  have  come  to  be 
largely  used  for  making  breakfast  foods,  as  well  as  for  live 
stock  feeding,  so  that  their  production  is  increasing. 

Oats  are  adapted  to  cool,  moist  climates,  and  for  that  reason 
the  oats  grown  in  northern  climates  are  of  better  quality  than 
those  grown  in  southern  sections.  The  northern  varieties 
weigh  more  per  bushel  and  have  fewer  beards  on  the  hulls  of 
the  kernels.  Southern  varieties  are  frequently  so  beardy  that 
they  will  not  feed  through  the  drill  for  sowing.  The  varieties 
of  northern  climates  are  usually  white  in  color  (there  are  some 
black  varieties);  those  of  the  south  are  dirty  white,  dun  and 
reddish  brown. 

Soil  and  Preparation  of  Seed  Bed. — Oats  are  suited  to 
any  soil  except  the  very  rich  and  the  very  sandy.  A  clay  loam 
soil  well  drained  is  best.  Oats  usually  do  not  need  manur- 
ing and  fertilizing  like  wheat,  for  they  depend  upon  the  left- 
over fertility  of  the  last  crop.    In  the  corn  belt  states  oats  are 


OTHER  CEREALS  89 

largely  sown  without  plowing  the  ground.  The  crop  is  usu- 
ally sown  on  corn  stubble  ground,  in  which  case  the  land  is 
disked  and  harrowed  and  the  oats  drilled.  On  prairie  farms 
most  of  the  crop  is  sown  with  broadcast  seeders  and  the 
grain  covered  by  disking  and  harrowing.  However,  land 
which  has  been  plowed  and  carefully  prepared  will  usually 
bring  larger  results  than  land  not  so  carefully  prepared. 

Seeding. — Farmers  try  to  sow  their  oats  as  early  in  spring 
as  possible.  There  are  two  reasons  for  this :  one  is  to  get  the 
work  out  of  the  way  and  the  other  is  that  oats  do  better  when 
sown  in  the  cool  and  moist  part  of  the  growing  season.  South 
of  the  latitude  of  the  Ohio  River  a  great  deal  of  oats  is  sown 
in  autumn.  In  the  north  the  cold  winter  freezes  the  autumn- 
sown  oats  and  kills  them.  Seed  of  the  best  quality  only  should 
be  sown.  It  should  be  run  through  a  fanning  mill  and  all  the 
light  grain  winnowed  out.  Experiments  by  Professor  Zavitz, 
of  Ontario  Agricultural  College,  show  that  plump,  heavy  seed 
will  give  a  larger  yield  than  common  seed.  The  amount 
of  seed  sown  per  acre  varies  a  great  deal.  It  depends  upon 
the  soil  and  the  method  of  sowing.  On  rich  land  not  so 
much  seed  need  be  sown  as  on  poor  land,  because  plants  will 
be  stronger  and  stool  out  more.  When  sown  with  broadcast 
seeders  more  seed  should  be  used  than  when  the  seed  is 
drilled.  Two  and  one-half  bushels  per  acre  is  an  average 
sowing.  Many  farmers  sow  two  bushels  per  acre,  while 
others  sow  much  more.  It  is  said  that  as  much  as  seven  and 
one-half  bushels  per  acre  are  sown  in  Scotland.*  Heavy 
seeding  generally  gives  best  results.  Oats  should  not  be 
covered  too  deeply;  about  one  inch  deep  is  best  when  the 
land  is  in  good  condition. 

*  Bailey's  Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture. 


90  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

Harvesting. — What  has  been  said  about  the  harvesting 
and  threshing  of  wheat  apphes  also  to  oats.  Oats  should 
stand  in  the  shock  until  they  are  well  dried  out  before  being 
stacked  or  threshed. 

Varieties. — There  are  many  varieties  of  oats.  All  may  be 
classed  in  two  large  groups,  the  spreading  oats  and  the  side 
oats.  In  the  first  group  the  branches  of  the.  oats  head  spread 
out  in  all  directions  from  the  central  part,  while  in  the  second 
group  all  the  branches  seem  to  be  on  one  side  of  the  head. 
The  spreading  varieties  are  considered  better  yielders  than 
the  side  varieties.  Black  varieties  are  not  generally  consid- 
ered such  good  yielders  as  the  white.  There  are  some  vari- 
eties which  have  yellowish  hulls.  In  the  southern  states  the 
varieties  are  nearly  all  reddish-brown  or  gray.  There  are 
varieties  which  have  very  loose  hulls  around  the  kernel,  so 
that  in  threshing  the  kernel  is  completely  hulled  out.  This 
kind  of  oats  is  called  ^'hulless"  and  is  not  a  profitable  kind 
to  grow.  Oat  varieties  differ  a  good  deal  in  their  time  of 
ripening.  As  a  rule  those  which  ripen  medium  early  are  the 
best  yielders. 

Rye. — Rye  has  been  known  in  the  Old  World  for  more 
than  2,000  years.  However,  it  is  not  so  old  as  wheat  and 
barley.  It  originated  along  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  in 
Western  Asia.  It  is  said  still  to  grow  wild  in  the  unsettled 
parts  of  those  regions.  Rye  is  not  so  important  as  the  other 
cereals.  The  amount  raised  seems  to  be  decreasing.  In  this 
country  it  is  raised  partly  because  of  the  value  of  the 
straw. 

Culture  of  Rye. — The  cultivated  plant  became  known 
first  in  North-eastern  Europe.  Rye  is  adapted  to  a  wide 
range  of  climate  and  does  better  than  wheat  in  extremely  cold 


OTHER  CEREALS  ,  91 

regions.  It  will  grow  on  soil  too  poor  to  produce  good  crops 
of  wheat.  It  is  also  grown  on  land  on  which  wheat  is  killed 
out  by  the  winter.  The  seed-bed  for  rye  should  be  prepared 
exactly  as  for  wheat.  Rye  is  usually  sown  a  few  days  earlier 
than  wheat,  but  may  also  be  sown  quite  late.  About  one  and 
a  half  to  two  bushels  of  seed  per  acre  are  sown.  The  harvest- 
ing and  threshing  are  the  same  as  for  wheat,  but  extra  care 
must  be  taken  that  the  grain  is  quite  dry  before  storing  it  in 
bins,  for  it  will  mould  very  easily. 

Varieties  and  Characteristics. — There  are  few  varieties 
of  rye,  probably  owing  to  the  easy  mixing  of  varieties  when 
sown  close  together.  Rye  grows  much  taller  than  wheat  and 
the  kernels  are  not  completely  covered  by  the  chaff.  Rye  heads 
out  and  blossoms  much  sooner  than  wheat,  but  it  ripens  at 
about  the  same  time.  The  straw  from  rye  is  quite  valuabje 
for  packing  purposes,  because  of  its  length  and  toughness. 
Rye  is  seldom  injured  by  insects,  smut,  or  rust.  A  disease 
called  ergot  sometimes  attacks  it.  This  will  be  spoken  of  in 
another  place. 

Barley. — The  history  of  barley  is  as  old  as  that  of  wheat. 
In  ancient  Egypt  it  was  used  as  food  for  man  and  beast  and 
also  for  beer.  Down  to  the  sixteenth  century  it  was  the 
principal  bread  plant  of  the  civilized  world.  With  the  de- 
velopment of  wheat  culture  and  the  introduction  of  potatoes 
from  America  its  use  began  to  decrease. 

Culture. — Barley  will  grow  under  a  wider  range  of  climate 
and  soil  conditions  than  any  other  cereal.  It  will  grow  well 
in  regions  of  small  rainfall  and  it  matures  in  less  time  than 
oats  and  spring  wheat.  Barley  comes  to  its  highest  perfec- 
tion on  rich,  sandy  loam  soil,  well-drained.  It  should  not  be 
grown  in  a  field  that   has  had  a  root  crop,  i.  e.,  turnips  or 


92  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

sugar  beets,  the  year  before;  nor  should  it  be  raised  several 
years  in  succession  on  the  same  field. 

The  preparation  of  the  seed-bed  for  barley  is  the  same  as 
that  for  wheat  or  oats.  In  some  parts  of  the  country  barley  is 
sown  in  autumn,  but  in  most  places  it  is  sown  in  spring. 
From  one  and  a  half  to  four  bushels  of  seed  per  acre  are 
sown.  Barley  does  not  stool  out  much,  hence  a  good  deal  of 
seed  is  required.  Barley  should  be  harvested  before  it  be- 
comes over-ripe,  and  great  care  must  be  taken  to  shock  it  so 
that  the  heads  do  not  become  discolored  by  rain  and  dew. 
This  care  is  necessary  if  the  grain  is  to  be  sold  to  brewers.  If 
the  grain  is  to  be  fed  to  live  stock  such  care  is  not  so  necessary. 

There  are  not  many  varieties  of  barley.  They  are  classified 
as  six-rowed,  four-rowed,  and  two-rowed  varieties,  according 
to  the  arrangement  of  the  grains  on  the  head.  The  varieties 
may  also  be  grouped  as  bearded  and  beardless.  The  beard- 
less varieties  are  quite  new  and  were  developed  because  of  the 
strong  objection  by  farmers  to  the  beards  on  the  common 
barley.  In  most  varieties  the  hull  remains  attached  to  the 
kernel  after  threshing,  but  there  are  a  few  varieties  in  which 
the  kernels  thresh  out  clean  like  wheat. 

Rice. — While  rice  is  not  grown  in  many  states  of  the 
Union,  it  has  become  such  an  important  crop  in  some  of 
them  that  a  brief  mention  of  it  here  will  not  be  out  of  place. 
Rice  furnishes  food  for  more  people  than  any  other  plant. 
It  is  cultivated  in  the  warm  regions  throughout  the  world. 
In  the  United  States  its  culture  is  limited  to  the  Gulf  States 
and  Arkansas.  Texas,  Louisiana  and  Arkansas  produce 
most  of  the  rice  raised  in  this  country. 

Culture. — The  rice  plant  grows  best  in  a  rich,  clay  loam 
soil.    The  rice  fields  are  usually  located  along  streams  or 


OTHER  CEREALS  93 

where  they  can  be  easily  flooded  with  water.  The  land 
is  prepared  as  for  wheat  and  the  grain  is  sowed  in  drills  or 
broadcast  at  the  rate  of  about  fifty-five  to  eighty  pounds 
per  acre.  As  soon  as  the  plants  come  up  water  is  turned 
on  from  the  streams  or  is  pumped  on  from  large  wells. 
This  is  called  *' flooding."  The  flooding  is  accomplished 
by  means  of  canals  run  across  the  fields  and  so  arranged 
that  by  means  of  "gates"  in  the  banks  the  water  can  be 
turned  on  or  shut  off  as  desired.  The  object  of  the  flooding 
is  to  kill  grass  and  weeds  and  to  furnish  an  abundance  of 
moisture.  The  field  is  left  covered  with  water  for  several 
days;  then  it  is  withdrawn  and  the  field  allowed  to  dry  a  few 
days,  when  the  water  is  turned  on  again.  The  process  of 
flooding  and  drying  is  repeated  until  harvest  time,  when  the 
water  is  withdrawn  to  allow  the  ground  to  dry  so  that  binders 
can  be  used.  Rice  is  cut  before  it  gets  fully  ripe,  just  as  the 
straw  begins  to  turn  yellow.  It  is  carefully  shocked  and 
usually  stacked.  When  threshed  the  hull  remains  on  the  rice 
kernel  and  it  is  necessary  to  run  it  through  another  mill  to 
remove  the  kernel.  The  hulled  grain  is  then  run  through 
another  mill,  which  polishes  it,  and  it  is  ready  for  market. 
Much  of  the  work  in  rice  growing  is  done  by  hand,  but 
on  the  large  fields  modern  machinery  is  being  brought 
into  use. 

Millet. — In  the  United  States  millet  is  not  grown  very 
extensively  for  seed  and  such  as  is  produced  is  used  for 
bird  seed,  and  for  sowing  future  crops.  However,  in  Russia, 
China,  and  India,  millions  of  bushels  of  millet  seed  are  used 
for  human  food.  In  those  countries  it  has  been  used  for 
food  for  centuries.  Russia  grows  about  eighty  million  bush- 
els of  millet  annually.    Japan  uses  about  thirty-five  million 


94  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

bushels  of  seed  each  year  for  human  food,  and  in  India  thirty- 
five  to  forty  milHon  acres  of  millet  are  grown  annually.  The 
kinds  of  millet  and  their  culture  will  be  described  in  the  chap- 
ter on  forage  crops. 

.  Buckwheat. — Buckwheat  is  a  native  of  the  Old  World, 
where  it  has  been  cultivated  in  nearly  every  country  for  cen- 
turies. It  is  not  properly  a  cereal,  but  because  its  seeds  are 
used  for  human  food  it  is  spoken  of  in  this  chapter.  It  is 
closely  related  to  such  plants  as  rhubarb,  sour  dock,  and 
smartweed,  and  if  the  seeds  of  these  plants  be  compared  with 
the  buckwheat  seed  it  is  easily  seen  that  they  resemble  each 
other  very  much.  The  name  buckwheat  seems  to  come  from 
a  German  word,  huchweizen,  meaning  beech-wheat,  a  name 
given  to  it  because  the  seed  looks  so  much  like  a  beech-nut. 

Only  about  fifteen  million  bushels  of  buckwheat  are  raised 
in  the  United  States.  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  grow 
about  two-thirds  of  this  amount.  Buckwheat  grows  best  in 
a  cool,  moist  climate,  although  warm  weather  is  helpful  dur- 
ing the  first  few  weeks  of  growth.  Hot  weather  and  showers 
at  flowering  time  are  almost  sure  to  cause  a  failure,  because 
the  seed  does  not  form  well  from  the  blossoms.  Buckwheat 
ripens  seed  in  a  shorter  time  than  any  other  grain  crop,  eight 
or  ten  weeks  being  enough  time  to  grow  a  crop  of  buckwheat. 

Buckwheat  grows  best  on  light,  well-drained  soil.  It  does 
well  also  on  poor  land,  or  land  poorly  farmed.  Buckwheat  is 
usually  not  manured  or  fertilized,  but  it  will  respond  to  appli- 
cations of  manures  and  fertilizers  as  well  as  any  crop.  It 
leaves  the  land  in  good  shape  for  wheat  or  potatoes.  It  is 
said  that  oats  and  corn  do  not  do  well  after  buckwheat.  The 
land  should  not  be  heavily  fertilized.  Also,  farmers  should 
not  attempt  to  grow  buckwheat  on  very  rich  land,  for  it  will 


OTHER  CEREALS  95 

easily  lodge  and  a  good  yield  will  not  be  obtained.  The  land 
should  be  plowed  early  in  spring,  harrowed  down,  and  har- 
rowed at  various  times  to  kill  out  weeds  until  time  to  sow. 
Often  the  land  is  not  plowed  until  late,  and  then  it  is  not  put 
in  good  shape  for  the  seed.  The  seed  is  sown  about  the  first 
of  July  at  the  rate  of  about  one  bushel  per  acre.  It  may  be 
sown  in  drills  or  broadcast. 

Buckwheat  keeps  on  blossoming  and  producing  seed  until 
killed  by  frost.  The  crop  should  be  cut  before  heavy  frosts. 
Some  of  the  green  kernels  will  mature  as  the  plants  dry  out. 
The  crop  is  usually  cut  with  a  self-rake  reaper  or  with  a 
mower.  The  threshing  should  be  done  as  soon  as  the  stems 
are  fully  dried  out.  The  grain  should  not  be  stored  at  first 
in  large  piles  or  tight  bins  as  it  heats  easily  and  spoils. 

Cow-peas  and  Soy-beans. — The  growing  of  these  plants 
will  be  spoken  of  in  the  chapter  on  forage  crops,  for  they  are 
grown  as  much  or  more  for  hay  than  for  the  seed.  The  seeds 
of  both  of  these  plants  are  used  for  human  food  and  for  live 
stock.  In  the  southern  states  cow-peas  are  highly  prized  for 
table  use,  and  in  Asia  the  soy-bean  furnishes  a  part  of  the 
human  diet.  In  America,  however,  the  seeds  of  both  plants 
are  used  mainly  for  feeding  live  stock.  Cow-peas  are  pastured 
off  by  hogs  or  ground  for  feeding  to  cattle.  Soy-beans  can  be 
fed  in  the  same  way.  Soy-beans  have  been  fed  to  all  classes 
of  live  stock  with  good  results.  Neither  cow-pea  nor  soy- 
bean seed  should  be  fed  alone,  but  should  be  mixed  with 
four  or  five  times  its  weight  of  corn  or  other  grain. 


CHAPTER  XII 
ROOTS,  TUBERS,  BULBS 

Soils  and  Preparation. — In  a  general  way  all  root  crops 
do  best  in  soil  which  is  not  too  heavy.  A  loam  soil  with  a 
good  proportion  of  fine  sand  in  it  seems  to  be  best,  for  such 
a  soil  permits  the  roots  to  develop  smooth  and  uniform.  The 
plowing  for  root  crops  should  be  deep,  for  all  the  true  root 
crops  have  long  tap  roots  which  strike  deeply  into  the  soil,  and 
if  the  soil  is  loose  deep  down  they  have  an  opportunity  to 
grow  large  and  well  formed.  After  plowing  the  seed-bed 
should  be  made  as  fine  as  possible.  The  seeds  of  most  of  the 
true  root  crops  are  quite  small  and  need  a  fine,  mellow  seed- 
bed or  they  will  not  germinate  well.  If  the  land  is  plowed 
early  in  spring  and  then  harrowed  several  times  until  the  time 
of  planting,  the  weeds  will  be  pretty  well  killed  out.  One 
should  not  try  to  raise  root  crops  on  weedy  land. 

Carrots. — The  carrot  is  the  best  root  for  feeding  to  horses. 
It  is  also  used  for  human  food.  Carrots  require  rich,  mellow 
soil,  free  from  weeds.  The  young  carrot  plants  are  quite 
small  and  delicate  and  weeds  easily  choke  them  out.  The 
seed  is  sown  in  drills  eighteen  to  twenty-four  inches  apart, 
from  the  middle  of  May  to  the  middle  of  June,  at  the  rate 
of  one  and  a  half  to  two  pounds  of  seed  per  acre.  Owing  to 
the  small  size  of  the  plants  some  hand  work  will  be  necessary 

96 


ROOTS,    TUBERS,    BULBS  97 

in  the  first  cultivation.  The  plants  should  be  thinned  until 
they  stand  about  four  to  six  inches  apart  in  the  row.  They 
grow  slowly  at  first  and  require  careful  attention.  The  roots 
should  be  gathered  before  freezing  weather,  dried  in  the  open 
air,  and  then  stored  in  a  cool,  dry  place.  Carrots  will  yield 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  tons  per  acre. 

Mangel-wurtzels. — These  are  commonly  called  mangels. 
They  are  more  widely  used  as  a  root  crop  for  winter  feeding 
than  any  of  the  other  roots.  The  varieties  differ  in  shape,  color 
and  size.  The  name  of  a  variety  is  frequently  made  up  of 
words  indicating  all  three  of  these  characters,  as,  for  example, 
the  Giant  Long  Red.  The  shapes  are  of  three  kinds,  the 
globe,  ovoid,  and  long.  There  is  little  difference  in  the  value 
of  these  sorts.  The  globe  and  ovoid  sorts  are  probably 
better  than  the  long  varieties,  being  more  solidly  fleshed  and 
better  keepers.  Mangels  grow  with  part  of  the  root  out  of 
the  ground.  The  long  varieties  have  as  much  as  half  of 
the  root  above  ground.  This  part  of  the  root  is  not  so  good 
for  food  as  the  underground  part. 

Mangels  require  a  deep  surface  soil  so  that  the  roots  can 
grow  downward  without  being  hindered.  Subsoiling  may  be 
advisable  in  some  cases  in  order  to  get  a  deep  seed-bed.  Seed 
is  sown  in  drills  twenty-four  to  thirty  inches  apart,  in  May  or 
early  June,  at  the  rate  of  four  to  six  pounds  per  acre.  The 
seed  sprouts  slowly  and  the  growth  at  first  is  slow,  so  that  a 
good  deal  of  care  in  cultivation  is  necessary  to  keep  the  weeds 
down.  The  plants  should  be  thinned  to  eight  to  twelve  inches 
apart  in  the  row.  The  roots  are  harvested  before  hard  freez- 
ing weather  and  stored  in  cellars  or  bins  for  winter  feeding. 
A  box-stall  closed  up  makes  a  good  place  to  store  them.  In 
gathering  the  crop  the  tops  should  be  twisted  off  by  hand 


98  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

rather  than  cut  off  with  a  knife,  as  the  roots  keep  better  when 
so  topped.  Twenty  to  thirty  tons  of  roots  per  acre  is  a  com- 
mon crop. 

Sugar  Beets. — Sugar  Beets  are  improved  mangels  and 
require  almost  exactly  the  same  treatment.  The  sugar  beet 
contains  more  sugar  than  the  mangel  and  in  some  states  is 
extensively  raised  for  the  manufacture  of  sugar.  About  twice 
as  much  seed  is  required  per  acre  and  the  plants  should  be 
about  twice  as  close  in  the  row.  For  sugar  production  roots 
weighing  about  a  pound  are  desired.  Small  sized  roots  are 
richer  in  sugar  than  the  large  sized  ones.  When  grown  to 
feed,  large  roots  are  desirable,  for  they  require  less  labor  to 
harvest.  Fifteen  to  twenty  tons  per  acre  are  raised  under 
ordinary  conditions. 

Parsnips. — Parsnips  are  raised  mainly  for  table  use  in 
America,  but  they  also  furnish  an  excellent  food  for  milch 
cows.  In  the  Island  of  Jersey,  where  Jersey  cattle  came 
from,  they  are  extensively  raised  for  that  purpose.  The  pars- 
nip is  very  deep-rooted  and  requires  deep  soil  for  good  re- 
sults. The  seed  is  sown  in  spring  in  rows  eighteen  to  twenty- 
four  inches  apart,  using  about  four  pounds  of  seed  per  acre. 
The  plants  should  be  cultivated  and  thinned  like  carrots. 
Parsnips  are  not  injured  by  freezing  and  only  such  as  are 
needed  for  winter  use  need  be  gathered.  They  yield  ten  to 
fifteen  tons  per  acre. 

Turnips. — There  are  two  classes  of  turnips,  the  English 
and  the  Swedish.  The  English  turnip  is  the  kind  usually 
grown  in  gardens  and  truck  patches  for  table  use,  and  the  seed 
is  usually  sown  in  summer  after  some  early  crop,  like  sweet 
corn,  potatoes  or  peas,  has  been  harvested.  It  is  nearly  always 
sown  broadcast  without  much  attention  being  given  to  the 


ROOTS,   TUBERS,   BULBS  99 

amount  of  seed,  but  the  proper  amount  is  about  two  or  three 
pounds  per  acre. 

English  turnips  grow  very  rapidly  and  are  soon  large 
enough  to  use.  They  produce  at  the  rate  of  ten  to  fifteen 
tons  per  acre. 

Swedish  turnips  are  frequently  called  ruta-bagas  and  this 
is  generally  shortened  to  "bagas."  They  are  also  called 
"Swedes."  Swedish  turnips  are  used  mostly  for  feeding  live 
stock,  but  can  also  be  used  for  the  table.  They  grow  larger 
and  require  a  longer  season  to  reach  full  growth  than  the 
English  turnips.  They  will  not  grow  so  well  in  warm  tem- 
perate climates  as  the  English  turnips,  but  are  be^t  suited  to 
the  climate  of  our  northern  border  states  and  Canada.  They 
should  be  sown  in  drills  about  two  feet  apart,  using  about  one 
pound  of  seed  to  the  acre.  They  should  be  cultivated  the 
same  as  other  root  crops  and  thinned  to  ^ye  or  six  inches 
apart  in  the  row.  Twenty  or  more  tons  to  the  acre  can  be 
grown. 

All  kinds  of  turnips  are  hardy  and  do  not  need  to  be  gath- 
ered until  the  ground  begins  to  freeze.  It  is  better  to  store  tur- 
nips in  trenches  or  mounds  of  earth,  for  when  put  into  dry  cel- 
lars they  lose  moisture  and  become  pithy  and  not  good  to  use. 

Potatoes. — Potatoes  are  not  roots,  but  tubers.  The  po- 
tato is  a  native  of  America.  The  Indians  were  growing  it 
when  the  first  colonists  came  to  this  country.  When  the  po- 
tato was  introduced  into  the  Old  World  it  became  a  source 
of  food  for  millions  of  people.  In  this  country  it  is  used 
chiefly  for  food,  vlt  is  also  used  for  the  manufacture  of 
starch,  but  not  to  such  an  extent  as  in  other  countries,  for 
we  have  Indian  corn  which  is  a  cheaper  source  of  starch. 

Potatoes  do  best  in  loam  soils  having  a  tendency  to  become 


100  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

sandy.  Muck  soils  have  been  found  quite  favorable  to  po- 
tato growing  A  clover  sod  on  well-drained  loam  soil  is,  per- 
haps, the  best  possible  foundation  for  a  large  yield  of  potatoes. 
The  land  should  be  plowed  deeply;  and  if  it  is  plowed  in  the 
fall  and  then  again  in  the  spring  it  will  be  all  the  better,  for 
potatoes  like  mellow  soil.  It  should  be  thoroughly  pulverized 
as  deep  as  plowed.  The  land  can  be  manured  with  stable 
manure,  but  large  potato  growers  prefer  to  use  commercial 
fertilizers,  for  manure  is  likely  to  cause  scab  and  rot,  two 
diseases  that  are  quite  damaging  to  the  crop. 

Where  potatoes  are  planted  by  hand  it  is  a  good  plan  to 
furrow  out'  the  field  with  a  single-shovel  plow  and  drop  the 
seed  potatoes  in  the  bottom  of  the  furrow.  The  seed  planted 
for  the  future  crop  is  not  the  real  seed  of  the  potato,  but  a 
tuber  or  a  piece  of  one.  This  is  called  the  seed-piece.  If 
potatoes  are  planted  in  furrows  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  ridge 
the  rows  in  order  to  keep  the  new  potatoes  covered.  The 
new  potatoes  do  not  form  any  lower  down  in  the  soil  than  the 
position  of  the  seed-piece,  so  that  there  is  danger  of  the  new 
potatoes  being  too  near  the  surface  and  becoming  green  from 
the  sun,  a  condition  which  spoils  them  for  use.  When  potatoes 
are  grown  on  a  large  scale  they  are  planted  by  a  machine 
drawn  by  horses.  This  machine  makes  a  furrow,  drops  the 
seed-piece  and  covers  it.  The  seed-pieces  planted  are  usu- 
ally prepared  beforehand  by  cutting  a  whole  potato  into  two 
or  more  pieces  according  to  its  size.  Every  piece  should  have 
one  or  more  "eyes."  The  "eye'*  is  the  place  on  the  tuber 
where  the  new  plant  starts.  It  is  best  to  let  the  cut  pieces  lie 
for  a  few  hours  until  the  cut  surfaces  have  dried.  The  seed- 
pieces  will  then  not  rot  so  easily  in  the  ground  if  the  weather 
is  not  favorable  for  growth. 


ROOTS,  tubers;  B,trLB§'  ^.:  101 

Potatoes  are  usually  planti?dMii,driUsrthr^e^!fe^6t;;oE\lnore 
apart  and  the  seed-pieces  dropped  about  fifteen  to  twenty 
inches  apart  in  the  row.  They  may  also  be  planted  in  hills 
three  feet  or  more  apart,  dropping  two  or  three  pieces  in  a 
hill.  The  seed-pieces  should  be  covered  about  four  inches 
deep,  or  planted  about  two  inches  deep  in  a  slight  furrow 
and  filled  in  by  cultivation  after  the  plants  come  up. 

Cultivation  can  begin  as  soon  as  necessary.  Even  if  the 
plants  are  not  up,  the  rows  are  easily  followed,  and  if  a  slight 
covering  of  soil  is  thrown  over  the  row  no  harm  is  done,  but 
rather  good,  for  the  plants  will  come  through  it  and  the  row 
will  have  fewer  weeds.  The  purpose  of  cultivation  is,  as  in 
other  cultivated  crops,  to  keep  down  weeds  and  preserve  the 
moisture.  Level  cultivation  should  be  given  and  it  may 
continue  until  the  plants  come  in  blossom,  or  so  many  tops 
cover  the  row  that  they  are  injured  by  the  horse  and  cul- 
tivator. 

Early  potatoes  are  usually  dug  as  soon  as  possible  and  put 
on  the  market.  Late  potatoes  are  allowed  to  mature  fully 
before  digging.  They  are  then  marketed  for  winter  use  or 
stored  in  cellars  to  be  sold  out  during  the  winter  or  early  the 
next  spring.  Cellars  should  be  kept  just  a  little  above  the 
freezing'  point.  If  too  warm  the  potatoes  produce  sprouts 
and  their  quality  for  food  is  thereby  injured.  Small  patches 
are  usually  dug  by  hand,  but  in  large  fields  potato-diggers 
drawn  by  horses  are  used.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  dig 
potatoes  when  the  ground  is  too  wet,  for  the  soil  will  stick  to 
the  tubers  and  spoil  their  appearance.  An  ordinary  crop  is 
100  bushels  per  acre,  but  professional  growers  expect  from 
250  to  300  bushels  per  acre.  Yields  as  high  as  500  to  1,000 
bushels  per  acre  have  been  reported. 


102  AGRICULTIjkE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

/  Sweet  J^otato'eSc-^ While  tKe  sweet  potato  is  called  a  tuber 
it  is  really  only  a  thickened  root.  The  sweet  potato  is  of  trop- 
ical origin  and  does  best  in  the  southern  states,  but  is  grown 
more  or  less  in  nearly  all  the  northern  states.  The  quality, 
however,  is  not  so  good  as  when  grown  farther  south.  Sweet 
potatoes  are  best  adapted  to  sandy  loam  soils.  The  plants 
are  started  by  planting  seed  potatoes  in  hot  beds.  Sprouts 
soon  start  up.  These  are  pulled  off  and  reset  where  they  are 
wanted  to  grow.  The  plants  soon  begin  to  grow  rapidly  and 
need  little  care  after  the  vines  begin  to  form,  except  to  keep 
down  large  weeds.  The  vines  should  be  cut  loose  from  the 
hills  before  killing  frosts,  as  the  potatoes  are  injured  in  quality 
if  the  vines  are  killed  by  frosts  while  still  attached.  The  po- 
tatoes should  be  dug  before  cold  weather  and  stored  in  a  cool, 
dry  place. 

Artichokes. — The  artichoke  is  a  tuber.  It  is  a  tall  grow- 
ing plant  with  a  yellow  blossom  resembling  the  sunflower. 
Artichokes  are  not  raised  extensively  and  are  used  almost 
entirely  for  feeding  hogs,  although  sometimes  for  table  use 
also.  They  are  planted  like  potatoes  and  are  usually  not  cul- 
tivated very  much,  but  cultivation  gives  best  results.  The 
plant  lives  over  from  year  to  year  and  does  not  need  replanting. 
In  fact,  when  they  are  not  cared  for,  artichokes  run  wild  and 
become  troublesome  as  weeds.  Hogs  are  turned  into  the  field 
in  autumn  and  are  allowed  to  harvest  the  crop  by  rooting  out 
the  tubers.  Enough  will  be  left  in  the  ground  to  produce  a 
good  crop  another  year.  Hogs  are  very  fond  of  artichokes  and 
gain  in  size  and  flesh  quite  rapidly  while  feeding  on  them. 

Onions. — The  onion  is  a  bulb  and  is  used  by  almost  every 
one  as  an  article  of  food.  Onions  are  never  used  as  food  for 
live  stock.     Onion  growing  in  some  states  has  become  quite 


ROOTS,   TUBERS,   BULBS 


103 


extensive.    New  York,  Ohio,  Indiana  and  the  New  England 
states  produce  the  bulk  of  the  onion  crop. 

Onions  do  best  on  well-drained  loams  which  are  not  very 
sandy.  Large  crops  are  also  raised  on  muck  soils,  when 
properly  fertilized.    For  onions  the  soil  should  be  thoroughly 


19.       AN    ONION    FIELD 

A  harvesting  scene  in  an  Indiana  field 

By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station 

prepared.  If  the  land  is  plowed  in  the  autumn  and  again 
in  the  spring  it  is  all  the  better.  It  should  be  pulverized,  so 
that  the  seed  will  have  the  proper  chance  to  sprout.  Some- 
times hand  raking  is  done  to  get  a  surface  of  fine  soil.  Muck 
soil  is  more  easily  prepared  than  loam.  Land  for  onions 
should  be  as  free  as  possible  from  weeds.  When  once  a  field 
has  been  put  in  shape  for  onions,  it  is  usually  planted  with 
them  three  or  four  years.    Since  weeds  are  not  at  all  desir- 


104  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

able,  stable  manure  is  not  much  used  for  fertilizing,  but  com- 
mercial fertilizers  are  largely  used.  Fertilizers  containing 
a  good  deal  of  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  are  desirable. 
Land  used  for  onion  growing  should  be  limed  every  six  or 
seven  years. 

The  onion  seed  should  be  planted  in  spring  as  early  as  the 
field  can  be  prepared.  Where  onions  are  grown  on  a  large 
scale  the  seed  is  sown  with  special  hand  machines.  Fourteen 
inches  apart  is  about  the  right  distance  for  the  rows.  About 
four  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  are  used. 

Onions  require  careful  cultivation.  This  is  usually  done 
by  hand  labor  with  hoes  and  hand  cultivators.  Those  who 
thin  and  weed  the  rows  usually  work  on  hands  and  knees. 
Onions  are  ripe  when  the  tops  begin  to  fall  down  and  die. 
They  are  then  pulled  and  thrown  into  rows  to  dry.  When 
the  tops  are  fully  dry,  the  onions  are  ready  to  store.  Some 
growers  store  them  without  cutting  off  the  tops;  others  cut 
off  the  tops.    They  are  usually  stored  in  bushel  crates. 

If  the  onions  are  to  be  sold  to  shippers  soon,  the  farmer 
usually  ranks  up  the  crates  in  the  field,  covering  them  to  keep 
off  rain.  Some  growers  have  a  special  shed  for  storing,  which 
has  sides  that  can  be  opened  to  give  a  circulation  of  air. 
When  stored  for  winter  they  are  put  into  cool,  dry  cellars, 
and  sometimes  into  large  warehouses.  Onions  are  heavy 
yielders,  giving  500  to  600  bushels  per  acre  for  ordinary 
crops  and  frequently  as  much  as  1,000  bushels. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
FORAGE  CROPS 

A  forage  crop  is  one  used  for  coarse  feed  for  live  stock. 
Sometimes  the  material  used  for  forage  is  called  **  roughage." 
Forage  crops  are  used  in  four  ways:  1.  As  hay.  The  plants 
are  cut  green  and  dried  in  the  sun.  Grasses  and  clovers 
mostly  are  used  for  hay.  2.  As  silage.  The  plants  are  cut 
green  and  run  through  a  machine  which  cuts  them  into  short 
pieces  and  these  are  stored  in  an  air-tight  bin,  called  a  silo. 
Green  corn  is  commonly  used  for  silage.  3.  Soiling  is  cut- 
ting the  plants  green  and  feeding  them  at  once  to  animals  in 
their  stalls  or  pastures.  Sorghum,  peas  and  oats,  and  corn 
are  crops  often  used  for  soiling.  4.  As  pasture.  The  crop  is 
eaten  where  it  grows. 

Hay. — For  hay  many  kinds  of  plants  are  used,  chiefly 
grasses,  clovers,  millets;  cow-peas  and  soy-beans. 

Timothy  and  orchard  grass  are  the  grasses  most  com- 
monly used.  Timothy  does  well  on  heavy  soils  like  clay  and 
loam.  It  also  grows  well  on  muck  soils,  but  is  apt  to  become 
too  coarse  stemmed.  The  seed  is  usually  sown  in  autumn 
with  wheat  or  rye.  After  the  grain  is  cut  the  timothy  occu- 
pies the  field  and  the  next  year  is  cut  for  hay  and  may  be  used 
several  years  for  cutting.  Timothy  is  sometimes  sowed  alone 
in  the  fall  on  well-prepared  land.    It  then  produces  a  crop 

the  next  year.    A  bushel  of  seed  is  used  for  about  six  acres  of 

105 


106  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

land.  It  should  be  cut  for  hay  for  horses  just  after  the  bloom 
begins  to  fall.  For  cattle  it  should  be  cut  just  as  it  is  coming 
into  blossom.    It  is  then  not  so  woody. 

Orchard  grass  will  grow  on  drier  soils  than  timothy.  The 
seed  is  sown  in  autumn  or  spring  on  wheat  ground  or  loam. 
It  takes  about  two  bushels  of  orchard  grass  seed  to  the  acre 
to  ensure  a  good  stand  of  plants.  Orchard  grass  is  ready  to 
cut  for  hay  before  timothy,  so  the  two  grasses  should  never 
be  sown  together.  It  should  be  cut  as  soon  as  it  begins  to 
blossom,  or  else  the  stems  will  get  too  firm  and  woody  to 
make  good  hay. 

Red  Top  is  a  grass  much  used  for  hay  in  the  eastern  states, 
but  it  does  not  give  as  heavy  a  yield  per  acre  as  timothy.  A 
good  timothy  or  orchard  grass  crop  should  give  two  tons  of 
dry  hay  to  the  acre. 

The  clovers  are  much  used  for  hay,  especially  for  cattle 
and  sheep.  Timothy  and  orchard  grass  are  much  better  for 
horses.     There  are  four  clovers  used  for  hay. 

Red  Clover. — ^This  clover  usually  lives  two  years,  hence 
it  is  a  biennial.  A  biennial  is  a  plant  that  produces  blos- 
soms and  seeds  the  second  year  after  the  seed  is  sown.  It 
grows  best  on  loam  soils.  It  is  sown  broadcast  in  the  spring 
on  wheat  ground  or  with  oats.  Usually  the  seed  is  sown  in 
February  or  March  on  wheat  ground  at  the  rate  of  one  bushel 
to  Rye  or  six  acres  of  ground.  The  seed  is  worked  into  the 
ground  by  the  freezing  and  thawing,  and  when  the  weather 
becomes  warm  enough  it  sprouts  and  grows.  Sometimes  the 
seed  is  sown  later  and  covered  by  harrowing  with  a  spike- 
tooth  harrow.  The  harrowing  does  not  injure  the  wheat. 
After  the  grain  is  cut  the  young  clover  plants  grow  up  rapidly, 
if  the  weather  is  good,  and  furnish  fall  pasture.    The  next 


FORAGE   CROPS  107 

year  the  plants  produce  blossoms  and  are  cut  for  hay.  Red 
clover  soon  grows  up  again  after  being  cut  and  blossoms  the 
second  time.  This  second  crop  can  be  cut  for  hay  or  be 
allowed  to  ripen  and  be  cut  for  seed.  When  a  plant  goes  to 
seed  it  usually  dies  and  there  is  no  plant  for  next  year. 

Making  Clover  Hay. — In  cutting  clover  for  hay,  the  green 
plants  are  cut  when  about  one-third  of  the  blossoms  have 
begun  to  turn  brown.  At  this  time  the  clover  plants  will 
make  the  most  nutritious  hay.  The  cut  plants  are  allowed  to 
lie  in  the  swath  until  almost  dry,  when  they  are  raked  into 
windrows  where  they  may  dry  more.  Then  the  windrows 
are  gathered  in  piles  or  haycocks.  These  may  stand  in 
the  field  a  day  or  two  or  be  hauled  to  the  barn  at  once.  In 
making  hay  from  any  of  the  clovers,  it  should  be  the  aim  of 
the  farmer  to  save  all  the  leaves,  for  they  contain  much  food 
material. 

Mammoth  Clover. — This  is  also  called  Big  English  clover 
and  sometimes  Pea-vine  clover.  It  grows  larger  than  the  red 
clover  and  makes  only  one  crop  in  a  season.  Mammoth  clover 
can  be  told  from  red  clover  by  the  absence  of  the  crescent- 
shaped  light  green  spot  on  its  leaflets,  which  is  found  on  the 
leaflets  of  red  clover,  and  by  its  larger  size  and  later  blossoming. 
Mammoth  clover  grows  well  on  wetter  soil  than  red  clover. 
The  seed  is  sown  at  the  same  time  and  at  the  same  rate  as 
red  clover.  Mammoth  clover  does  not  make  quite  as  good 
hay  as  the  red  clover,  because  it  is  coarser  and  has  more  fuzz 
on  the  stems,  which  makes  the  hay  dusty.  Dusty  hay  gives 
horses  the  heaves.  Mammoth  clover  does  well  to  grow  with 
timothy  for  mixed  hay,  because  the  two  plants  blossom  to- 
gether. Red  clover  can  be  grown  best  with  orchard  grass, 
for  their  tinie  of  blossoming  is  the  same. 


108 


AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 


Crimson  Clover. — This  is  also  called  German  clover.  It 
lives  only  one  year,  that  is,  it  is  an  annual.  The  seed  is  sown 
in  the  autumn,  usually  August  for  the  corn-belt  states.    The 

next  spring  it  heads  out 
and  produces  beautiful, 
deep  red  blossoms.  This 
clover  does  not  stand 
the  winters  north  of  the 
Ohio  River  very  well, 
hence  it  is  not  largely 
grown  there.  The  hay 
is  too  woolly  to  be  first 
class.  This  clover  is  best 
for  pasture  and  green 
manuring,  and  is  used 
quite  largely  in  the 
southern  states  for  such 
purposes.  Crimson  clo- 
ver does  best  on  loose, 
sandy  loam  soils.  The 
seed  is  sown  at  the  rate 
of  fifteen  pounds  to  the 
acre. 

Alsike  Clover,  also 
known  as  Swedish  Clo- 
ver. This  clover  has 
finer  stems  and  leaves  than  the  other  clovers.  The  blos- 
soms are  beautiful  pink  and  resemble  those  of  white  clover 
except  that  they  are  more  deeply  colored.  Alsike  clover  does 
well  on  wetter  soils  than  any  of  the  other  clovers.  It  makes 
finer  hay  than  any  of  the  others.    Only  one  crop  can  be  cut 


20.   THE  LARGE  ROOT  SYSTEM  OF  THE 
CLOVER  PLANT 

Showing  the  large  number  of  nodules  on  the 
roots.  It  is  these  that  make  the  clover  plant 
so  beneficial  to  the  soil 

By  courtesy  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture— Bureau  of  Plant  Industry 


FORAGE   CROPS  109 

from  this  clover  in  a  season.  This  crop  can  be  used  for  hay 
or  for  seed.  Alsike  clover  does  not  die  out  after  producing 
seed  like  the  other  clovers,  but  continues  to  live  for  several 
years.  It  is  a  perennial.  It  is  a  good  clover  to  sow  with  tim- 
othy, as  both  plants  blossom  together  and  so  are  ready  to  cut 
at  the  same  time.  Alsike  and  timothy  are  good  to  sow  to- 
gether on  wet  lands  and  on  muck  lands.  It  takes  about  six 
pounds  of  seed  to  sow  an  acre.  The  seed  is  sown  in  the 
spring. 

Other  Clovers. — Bur  clover  and  Japan  clover  are  not  real 
clovers.  They  are  grown  in  the  southern  states  and  are  there 
quite  useful,  but  they  have  no  place  on  the  farms  in  the 
north.  Bokhara  clover  or  sweet  clover  is  considered  a  weed 
in  most  places,  but  some  attempts  have  been  made  to  use  it 
for  hay,  especially  in  the  South.  It  grows  in  waste  places  and 
along  roadsides.  It  has  white  blossoms  and  gives  off  a  pleas- 
ant odor  when  wilting.  It  is  a  good  fertilizer  for  the  ground. 
There  is  also  a  yellow  variety  of  sweet  clover. 

Alfalfa. — Alfalfa  is  not  a  clover,  but  is  closely  related  to 
the  clovers.  It  is  a  legume  and,  like  all  the  clovers  and  other 
legumes,  gathers  nitrogen  to  enrich  the  soil.  Alfalfa  originated 
in  Western  Asia.  It  is  rather  a  new  crop  for  the  states  east 
of  the  Mississippi  River,  but  has  been  grown  for  many  years 
in  the  dry  western  states.  It  seems  to  do  better  in  irrigated 
regions  than  elsewhere.  Alfalfa  grows  best  on  well-drained 
sandy  soils,  but  has  been  grown  successfully  on  every  kind  of 
soil  except  wet.  The  seed  may  be  sown  in  spring,  summer, 
or  autumn.  Best  results  have  been  obtained  in  Ohio  and 
Indiana  from  sowing  the  seed  in  summer  or  early  autumn  on 
land  that  was  plowed  in  the  spring  and  kept  free  from  weeds 
by  harrowing.    The  amount  of  seed  sown  is  about  twelve  to 


110 


AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 


fifteen  pounds  per  acre.  Alfalfa  lives  for  many  years  when 
once  it  gets  a  start.  The  plants  are  cut  for  hay  when  about 
one-fifth  of  the  heads  are  in  blossom.     As  soon  as  cut  new 


21.       A    COW-PEA    PLANT 

Some  varieties  produce  more  vines  than  this  one 
By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station 


growth  starts  up  and  in  a  few  weeks  it  can  be  cut  again  for 
hay.  Usually  three  or  four  crops  can  be  cut  from  the  same 
field  in  a  season.  The  hay  is  cured  the  same  as  clover,  but 
more  care  needs  to  be  taken  to  save  the  leaves,  as  they  drop 
off  easily  as  soon  as  dry. 


FORAGE   CROPS  111 

Cow-peas. — The  cow-pea  is  a  leguminous,  viny  plant,  very 
much  used  for  hay  in  those  states  bordering  on  the  Ohio  River 
and  in  all  the  southern  states.  The  use  of  the  seed  has  al- 
ready been  mentioned.  The  cow-pea  is  an  Old  World  plant, 
coming  from  Asia.  It  is  more  like  a  bean  than  a  pea,  for  it 
has  long  pods  like  bean  pods  and  the  seeds  of  most  varieties 
look  like  the  beans  which  we  plant  in  gardens.  The  blossoms 
are  beautiful,  resembling  pea  blossoms.  The  cow-pea  grows 
well  on  sandy  and  loam  soils.  The  land  should  be  prepared 
as  for  corn.  The  seed  is  not  planted  until  the  weather  has 
become  warm,  usually  after  corn-planting.  The  seed  may  be 
sown  in  drills,  twenty-four  inches  or  more  apart,  with  the 
plants  standing  about  three  or  four  inches  apart  in  the  rows. 
Or,  the  seed  may  be  sown  broadcast  with  the  drill  or  by  hand. 
When  sown  in  drills  a  half  bushel  of  seed  per  acre  is  neces- 
sary; when  sown  broadcast  about  twice  as  much  seed  is 
used.  If  sown  in  drills  the  plants  should  be  cultivated  like 
corn.  They  should  not  be  cultivated  when  wet  with  dew,  for 
the  leaves  will  be  injured.  Cow-peas  may  be  cut  for  hay,  or 
pastured,  or  cut  green  for  soiling.  When  cut  for  hay  the 
vines  should  be  thrown  into  piles  as  soon  as  they  are  wilted,  so 
as  to  save  the  leaves.  When  some  of  the  pods  have  begun  to 
ripen  it  is  time  to  cut  for  hay.  Cow-peas  also  make  excellent 
material  to  turn  under  for  enriching  the  land. 

Soy-beans. — The  soy-bean  is  a  native  of  Japan.  It  will 
grow  well  farther  north  than  the  cow-pea.  It  is  an  upright 
growing  plant  with  small,  purplish  or  whitish  blossoms,  and 
short  hairy  pods  containing  two,  three,  or  four  seeds.  The 
soy-bean  is  grown  mostly  for  seed,  but  is  also  useful  for  hay, 
especially  for  sheep.  The  time,  method,  and  rate  of  sowing 
are  the  same  as  for  cow-peas.   Care  should  be  taken  in  culti- 


112 


AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 


vating  not  to  cultivate  when  the  leaves  are  wet  with  dew,  for 
this  sometimes  injures  the  leaves.  Soy-beans  are  cut  for  hay 
when  the  pods  are  about  two-thirds  grown  and  before  any  of 

the  leaves  begin  to 
turn  yellow.  When 
the  soy-bean  plant 
gets  ripe  all  the 
leaves  fall  off,  so  if 
hay  is  to  be  made  it 
must  be  done  while 
the  plants  are  yet 
green.  Soy-beans 
are  also  good  to 
plow  under  for 
green  manuring. 

Vetches. — There 
are  several  kinds 
of  vetch.  The  most 
common  are  spring 
vetch  and  sand, 
winter,  or  hairy 
vetch.  The  hairy 
vetch  is  more  suc- 
cessful  than  the 
spring  vetch.  It  is 
sown  in  the  autumn,  usually  with  rye  or  wheat,  and  cut  the 
next  spring  before  the  wheat  or  rye  is  ripe,  thus  making  a 
mixed  hay.  Vetches  do  particularly  well  on  poor  ground. 
It  takes  about  three  pecks  of  seed  with  a  bushel  of  wheat 
or  rye  to  sow  an  acre.  Vetch  should  not  be  allowed  to 
ripen  seed  or  it  may  become  a  troublesome  weed. 


22. 


A   TYPICAL   SOY-BEAN    PLANT 


Notice  the  nodules  at  the  base  of  the  plant  and 
on  the  roots.  These  are  full  of  bacteria  which 
gather  nitrogen  from  the  air 

By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station 


FORAGE   CROPS  113 

Millets. — There  are  several  kinds  of  millets.  All  of  them 
have  come  to  us  from  the  Old  World.  In  India  certain  kinds 
of  millets  are  raised  for  seed  and  used  for  human  food.  In 
America  millets  are  raised  almost  entirely  for  forage.  A 
small  quantity  of  seed  is  produced,  but  it  is  used  mostly  for 
sowing  again  and  for  bird-seed.  Millets  are  grown  mostly  as 
catch  crops.  A  catch  crop  is  one  planted  late  in  the  season 
after  it  is  seen  that  some  other  crop  is  going  to  be  a  failure, 
or,  when  the  farmer  finds  that  he  will  not  have  enough  hay 
for  his  needs.  Millet  is  one  of  the  principal  "catch  crops." 
All  millets  are  grass-like  plants. 

There  are  four  classes  of  millets: 

1.  Foa:^az7  millets  when  headed  out  look  much  like  the 
weed  called  foxtail.  There  are  many  varieties  of  the  foxtail 
millets.  The  Best  known  varieties  are  Common,  German, 
and  Hungarian  millets.  The  Hungarian  is  finer  stemmed 
than  any  of  the  others  and  makes  the  best  hay.  Foxtail  mil- 
lets grow  best  on  well-prepared  loam  soils.  The  seed  is  sown 
broadcast  at  the  rate  of  one-half  to  three-fourths  of  a  bushel 
per  acre.  It  should  then  be  covered  lightly  with  a  harrow.  The 
seeds  soon  germinate,  and  the  plants  grow  rapidly.  As  soon  as 
millet  heads  out  and  blossoms  it  should  be  cut  for  hay.  If  the 
seed  is  allowed  to  form  and  get  solid,  the  hay  is  not  safe  feed 
for  horses.  Millet  is  cut  and  dried  for  hay  just  as  other  grasses. 

2.  The  Barnyard  millets  are  quite  different  from  the  fox- 
tail millets.  They  are  coarser  stemmed  and  have  a  more 
branched  head.  The  seed  is  larger  and  not  so  heavy.  This 
class  of  millets  requires  richer  and  damper  soils  than  any  of 
the  others.  The  seed  is  sown  at  the  rate  of  about  one  and  a 
fourth  bushels  per  acre.  This  millet  is  almost  too  coarse  for 
good  hay  and  is  not  much  in  favor  with  farmers. 


114 


AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 


3.  Broom-corn  millets  are  so-called  because  the  heads  of 
the  plants  are  quite  long  and  branching  like  broom-corn  or 
sorghum.  It  is  also  called  Hog  millet.  This  millet  is  quicker 
growing  than  the  others  and  produces  a  heavy  crop  of  seed. 


23.      A    PLOT    OF    GERMAN    MILLET    READY   TO    CUT   FOR    HAY 

This  patch  was  about  five  feet  tall  and  made  four  tons  of  hay  per  acre 

By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station 


The  stems  are  covered  with  short  hairs,  so  that  they  do  not 
make  first-class  hay.  About  three  pecks  of  seed  are  sown 
per  acre. 

4.  Cat-tail  millet.  This  name  is  derived  from  the  resem- 
blance of  the  head  to  the  cat- tail  flag  which  grows  in  swamps. 
It  is  also  known  as  Pearl  millet  and  as  Pencilaria.  It  grows 
six  or  more  feet  tall,  and  looks  much  like  sorghum  until 
it  heads  out.    The  stems  are  not  so  coarse  as  sorghum,  but 


FORAGE   CROPS  115 

much  more  so  than  any  of  the  millets.  This  millet  stands  dry 
weather  well  and  grows  rapidly  after  it  once  gets  a  start.  It 
is  better  to  sow  this  millet  in  rows  and  cultivate  it.  It  takes 
about  one  or  two  pounds  of  seed  per  acre,  if  it  is  drilled  in 
rows  three  feet  apart.  This  millet  is  not  very  valuable  as  a 
hay  plant. 

Teosinte. — Teosinte  is  a  forage  plant  looking  much  like 
corn.  It  is  adapted  only  to  southern  states,  as  it  requires  a 
long  season  in  which  to  grow. 

Indian  Corn. — Sometimes  corn  is  sown  broadcast  with  a 
drill,  or  quite  thick  in  rows  two  or  three  feet  apart.  Being  so 
thick  very  little  grain  is  formed.  When  cut  and  dried,  corn 
handled  in  this  way  is  called  fodder  corn.  It  is  really  corn 
hay.  When  corn  is  planted  in  the  usual  way  and  cut  and 
shocked  it  is  called  fodder.  When  the  ears  have  been  shucked 
out,  the  stalks  remaining  are  called  stover.  Fodder  and  stover 
are  very  common  forms  of  forage  in  the  corn  belt. 

Silage. — Many  crops  have  been  used  for  silage,  but  there 
is  only  one  satisfactory  crop.  This  crop  is  Indian  corn. 
For  silage,  corn  is  planted  in  the  usual  way  and  given  the 
same  cultivation  as  when  grown  for  grain  and  stover.  When 
some  of  the  lower  leaves  have  begun  to  turn  yellow  and  the 
husks  on  a  few  of  the  ears  are  getting  ripe  the  corn  is  ready 
to  put  into  the  silo. 

The  silo  is  really  a  big  barrel  set  on  end  and  without  a  head 
in  either  end.  It  is  made  out  of  staves  of  wood  held  together 
with  iron  rods  for  hoops.  The  bottom  is  usually  set  on  a  con- 
crete foundation.  Some  silos  are  covered  with  a  roof,  others 
are  not.  A  roof  is  desirable  to  keep  out  rain  and  snow.  A 
silo  is  usually  from  twenty  to  thirty-five  feet  high  and  ten  to 
twenty  feet  in  diameter.  •  There  are  doors  in  the  sides  for 


116 


AGKICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 


getting  out  the  silage.  A  silo  should  be  taller  than  its  diameter, 
so  that  when  filled  the  weight  of  the  silage  will  keep  it  tightly 
packed.  Almost  all  silos  are  circular  in  shape.  Most  silos 
are  made  out  of  timber,  although  many  are  now  being  made 


24.      FILLING   A   SILO 

This  is  one  of  the  best  methods  of  preserving  the  com  crop 

By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station 

of  brick  and  some  of  concrete.  A  silo  should  be  air-tight 
around  the  sides,  else  the  silage  will  spoil  wherever  the  air 
strikes  it. 

In  putting  up  silage,  the  corn  is  cut  in  the  field  by  hand  or 
with  a  binder,  loaded  on  wagons,  and  hauled  to  the  silo. 
Here  it  is  run  through  a  cutting  machine,  which  cuts  it  into 
short  lengths  of  one  or  two  inches.  This  cut  corn  is  blown 
into  the  top  of  the  silo  with  a  blower  and  falls  in  showers  to 
the  bottom.    Two  or  three  men  work  in  the  silo,  spreading 


FORAGE   CROPS  117 

and  tramping  the  corn  as  it  comes  in.  Silage  should  be 
tightly  pressed  down  against  the  sides  of  the  silo  and  well 
packed  through  the  centre.  When  full  the  top  can  be  cov- 
ered with  rotten  straw  to  keep  out  the  air,  or  it  can  be  left 
exposed.  A  few  inches  of  the  top  will  spoil,  but  the  rest  will 
come  out  in  the  winter  when  it  is  fed  as  green  and  sweet  as 
when  it  was  put  in  in  the  fall. 

Silage  is  a  particularly  good  feed  for  milch  cows,  and  dairy- 
men use  it  a  great  deal.  It  is  usually  fed  during  the  winter 
and  spring  months,  when  there  is  little  other  green  material. 
Silage  weighs  forty  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot.  An  acre  of  good 
corn  will  make  about  ten  or  twelve  tons  of  silage. 

Other  plants  like  cow-peas,  soy-beans,  clover,  sorghum,  peas 
and  oats,  and  millets  have  been  used  for  silage,  but  they  have 
not  given  as  good  results  as  Indian  corn.  The  legumes  do 
fairly  well  when  mixed  with  corn.  They  usually  ferment  too 
much  and  produce  undesirable  acids  in  the  silage. 

Soiling. — Soiling  crops  are  largely  used  by  dairymen,  and 
stockmen  who  are  preparing  animals  for  shows  and  agricul- 
tural fairs.  A  good  soiling  crop  must  be  svccvlent,  that  is, 
full  of  juice,  grow  quickly,  give  a  large  yield,  and  suit  the 
taste  of  the  animals. 

Sorghum  is  one  of  the  best  crops  for  soiling.  The  ground 
is  prepared  as  for  corn  and  the  sorghum  seed  sown  in  rows 
about  thirty  inches  apart.  It  takes  about  a  half  bushel  of 
seed  for  an  acre.  The  sorghum  is  cultivated  like  corn  and 
grows  rapidly  after  it  gets  a  start.  When  it  begins  to  head 
out  it  is  ready  to  use.  As  much  as  is  needed  is  cut  and  hauled 
to  the  animals  each  day.  A  good  field  of  sorghum  will  give 
ten  or  twelve  tons  of  green  weight  per  acre. 

Kafir  corn  takes  the  place  of  sorghum,  and  to  some  extent 


118 


AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 


com  also,  in  the  semi-arid  regions.  It  is  grown  quite  exten- 
sively in  Texas,  Oklahoma,  and  Kansas.  The  stalk  is  used 
for  stover  and  the  ripe  grain  for  feeding  animals.    The  green 


25.      SORGHUM    FOR    GREEN    FEED 

This  field  made  eleven  tons  per  acre  of  green  feed 
By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station 

plant  may  be  used  for  soiling,  but  it  is  not  so  sweet  as  sorghum. 
Milo,  durra,  and  Jerusalem  corn  are  similar  to  kafir  corn. 

Canada  Field  Peas  and  Oats  sown  together  is  a  favorite 
soiling  crop.  These  are  sown  as  early  in  spring  as  possible. 
The  peas  are  usually  sown  broadcast  on  top  of  the  ground, 
at  the  rate  of  one  and  a  half  bushels  per  acre.  The  ground  is 
then  plowed  about  three  or  four  inches  deep  and  harrowed 
down.  The  oats  are  then  sown  on  top  either  with  a  drill,  or 
broadcasted  and  harrowed  in.    The  ground  can  also  be  first 


FORAGE   CROPS  119 

prepared  and  the  peas  and  oats  then  sown  separately.  This 
crop  is  ready  to  use  in  about  sixty  days  from  the  time  of  sow- 
ing. When  the  oats  are  headed  and  the  peas  are  in  blossom, 
the  crop  is  ready  to  cut.  This  mixture  also  makes  excellent 
hay  when  dried,  especially  for  cows  and  sheep. 

Indian  corn  is  also  a  good  soiling  crop.  If  the  farmer  is 
short  of  pasture  he  can  use  his  green  corn  to  good  advantage 
by  feeding  some  each  day  to  his  milch  cows.  Sweet  corn  is 
often  raised  for  soiling  purposes.  It  grows  quickly  and  the 
stalks  are  sweeter  than  other  corn.  Cow-peas  and  soy-beans 
may  also  be  used  for  soiling  purposes,  especially  the  cow-peas. 

Pastures. — Most  farmers  depend  upon  pastures  for  all  of 
their  green  feed.  Native  grasses,  like  blue  grass  and  the  wild 
grasses  of  the  woodlands,  furnish  most  of  the  pasturage. 
Other  grasses,  like  orchard  grass,  tall  oat  grass,  smooth 
brome  grass,  and  Italian  rye  grass  also  make  good  pastures, 
and  farmers  would  do  well  to  cultivate  these  grasses.  Two 
or  more  kinds  of  grasses  are  usually  sown  together  for  pasture. 
When  this  is  done  the  ground  is  better  covered,  and  one  kind  is 
likely  to  grow  better  at  one  time  of  the  year  than  the  other,  so 
that  more  pasture  is  obtained.  In  making  up  a  mixture  of 
seeds  for  a  pasture,  the  clovers  should  never  be  left  out,  espe- 
cially the  alsike  and  white  clover.  The  white  clover  never 
grows  big  enough  to  make  hay,  but  always  holds  its  place  in 
pastures. 

Rape  is  a  plant  that  is  being  grown  more  every  year  for 
sheep  and  hog  pasture.  The  Dwarf  Essex  is  the  variety  most 
commonly  grown.  Rape  will  grow  on  any  land  that  will  pro- 
duce good  corn.  The  soil  is  prepared  the  same  as  for  corn,  ex- 
cept that  the  seed-bed  must  be  finer.  Rape  is  sown  from 
early. spring  to  mid-summer.    Where  small  areas  are  sown,  the 


120  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

seed  is  sown  with  a  hand  drill,  in  rows  about  two  feet  apart. 
Large  fields  are  always  sown  broadcast.  It  takes  about  two 
pounds  of  seed  to  sow  an  acre  when  sowed  in  rows  and  about 
three  or  four  pounds  when  sown  broadcast.  When  the  rape 
-is  twelve  inches  or  more  tall,  pasturing  may  begin.  Sheep  and 
cattle  should  have  some  dry  feed  before  they  are  turned  on 
the  rape,  else  they  will  eat  too  greedily  and  become  bloated, 
which  may  cause  death.  Hogs  do  not  bloat,  but  they  should 
not  be  turned  on  when  the  rape  is  wet  with  dew,  for  the  dew 
irritates  and  chafes  the  skin,  causing  sores.  If  the  rape  is  not 
eaten  down  too  close  to  the  ground  it  will  grow  up  again.  It 
is  a  good  plan  to  pasture  part  of  the  field  at  a  time  and  let  the 
other  grow  up  again  after  being  eaten  off. 

Rape  is  often  sown  with  oats  in  the  spring.  The  rape 
plants  do  not  grow  much  until  the  oats  are  cut,  then  they  begin 
to  grow  and  furnish  pasture  for  the  late  summer  and  autumn. 
Many  farmers  also  sow  rape  in  the  corn  at  the  time  of  last 
cultivation.  Rape  grown  this  way  can  be  pastured  off  in  the 
autumn  with  sheep  or  hogs. 

Miscellaneous  Forage  Crops, — Cabbage  and  pumpkins 
are  sometimes  grown  for  forage.  They  are  not  such  good 
forage  as  the  crops  that  have  been  mentioned  and  are  not 
grown  extensively.  The  crushed  canes  from  mills  where 
sorghum  is  ground  for  syrup  are  frequently  fed  to  live  stock. 
These  crushed  canes  are  known  as  bagasse.  Sugar  beet  pulp 
from  beet  sugar  factories  is  also  much  used  for  feeding  ani- 
mals, especially  cattle  and  sheep. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
OTHER  FARM  CROPS 

Tobacco. — This  crop  has  been  grown  in  America  since  the 
days  of  Jamestown.  Tobacco  is  an  American  plant.  The 
principal  varieties  have  come  from  South  America,  but  there 
is  a  species  which,  is  found  wild  in  Connecticut,  New  York, 
and  a  few  other  states. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  tobacco,  but  all  are  not  used 
for  the  same  purpose.  Some  varieties  are  used  for  cigar  wrap- 
pers and  binders,  others  for  the  filling  of  cigars,  others  to 
make  chewing  tobacco,  still  others  to  make  smoking  or  pipe 
tobacco,  and  finally  some  are  raised  mainly  to  export. 

Tobacco  is  very  greatly  influenced  by  the  soil  and  climate 
in  which  it  grows.  The  odor  and  flavor  of  the  tobacco,  as 
well  as  the  quality  of  the  leaves,  are  very  sensitive  to  soil  and 
climatic  changes.  The  soils  adapted  to  tobacco  growing 
range  from  clay  loams,  loams,  and  sandy  loams  to  light  sandy 
soils.  One  who  is  going  to  raise  tobacco  must  make  a  careful 
study  of  the  subject  before  he  can  expect  to  succeed  in  any 
large  degree. 

The  young  tobacco  plants  are  started  in  seed-beds,  and  after 
they  are  of  sufficient  size  they  are  set  out  in  the  fields.  The 
soil  in  the  fields  must  be  thoroughly  prepared  and  well  fer- 
tilized.    Both  commercial  fertilizers  and  stable  manure  are 

121 


122  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

desirable.  The  cultivation  requires  the  keeping  down  of  the 
weeds  and  a  loose  mulch  of  soil  on  the  surface  until  the  plants 
are  too  large  to  cultivate. 

When  the  plants  have  grown  to  considerable  size  they  begin 
to  send  out  blossom  buds.  These  must  be  removed  from  all 
plants  except  those  that  are  to  produce  seed  for  the  next  crop. 
When  the  leaves  are  ripe  the  plants  are  cut  and  taken  to  sheds 
and  arranged  on  racks  to  cure.  At  what  stage  of  growth  the 
leaves  are  ripe  is  hard  to  tell  in  words.  It  must  be  learned 
by  experience.  After  the  curing  process  is  done  the  dried 
leaves  are  handled  in  various  ways  to  prepare  them  for  the 
market.  The  method  of  handling  depends  upon  the  use  to 
which  the  leaves  are  to  be  put. 

Broom  Corn. — Broom  corn  is  closely  related  to  sorghum 
and  looks  very  much  like  it.  The  branches  of  the  heads  are 
longer  and  usually  lighter  colored.  The  stems  of  broom  corn 
are  not  sweet  like  those  of  sorghum.  The  head  or  "brush" 
is  the  valuable  part  of  the  plant. 

Broom  corn  is  raised  in  nearly  every  state  and  territory  of 
the  Union,  but  the  total  amount  produced  is  not  large.  Illi- 
nois, Kansas,  Missouri,  Oklahoma,  Nebraska,  Texas,  Iowa, 
California  and  Tennessee  are  the  states  producing  the  larg- 
est amounts.  Three  counties  in  Illinois  (Coles,  Douglas  and 
Moultrie)  produce  about  one-half  of  the  total  crop  in  the 
United  States.* 

There  are  two  kinds  of  broom  corn,  the  standard  and  the 
dwarf.  The  standard  grows  quite  tall,  as  much  as  twelve 
feet,  and  has  a  brush  fifteen  or  more  inches  long.  The  dwarf 
varieties  grow  about  six  feet  tall  and  have  brushes  about 
twelve  inches  or  more  long.  The  standard  varieties  are  used 
*  Farmers'  Bulletin  174. 


OTHER   FARM  CROPS  123 

for  making  long  brooms,  like  carpet  brooms,  while  the  dwarf 
varieties  are  used  for  whisk  brooms  and  the  like. 

Any  soil  that  will  produce  good  corn  will  raise  broom  corn. 
The  land  should  be  prepared  as  for  corn,  but  broom  corn  is 
not  planted  so  early,  for  the  soil  needs  to  be  warmer.  The 
seed  is  sown  in  rows  about  three  feet  apart,  and  the  plants 
should  stand  about  three  or  four  inches  apart  in  the  row. 
The  sowing  is  done  with  special  plates  in  a  corn  planter  or 
with  the  wheat  drill,  the  holes  not  needed  being  stopped  up. 
It  takes  about  two  or  three  quarts  of  seed  per  acre.  Cultiva- 
tion should  be  given  the  same  as  for  corn.  If  the  plants  are 
too  thick  in  the  row  they  should  be  thinned  before  getting 
very  large. 

Broom  corn  is  harvested  just  as  the  bloom  is  falling.  The 
brush  gets  stiff  and  brittle  if  allowed  to  ripen.  For  dwarf 
broom  corn  the  heads  are  pulled  by  hand,  but  the  standard 
has  to  be  "tabled,"  that  is,  two  rows  are  broken  across  each 
other  about  three  feet  from  the  ground.  The  heads  are  then 
cut  off  and  laid  on  the  broken  down  stems.  The  stem  left  on 
the  brush  should  be  about  five  or  six  inches  long.  As  soon  as 
cut  or  pulled  the  heads  are  taken  to  the  drying  sheds.  Here 
the  seed  is  removed  either  by  scraping  by  hand  with  a  curry- 
comb or  by  a  machine.  After  the  seed  is  removed  the  brush 
is  cured.  This  should  be  done  quickly  and  without  sunshine 
falling  on  the  brush.  It  is  then  baled  for  market.  A  good 
yield  of  dwarf  broom  corn  is  400  pounds  of  brush  to  the  acre, 
and  of  the  standard  600  to  700  pounds.  The  price  runs  from 
about  three  to  four  cents  per  pound.  A  ton  of  broom  corn  will 
make  about  100  dozen  brooms  of  ordinary  size. 

Flax. — Flax  is  a  fibre  crop  as  well  as  a  seed  crop.  By  fhre 
crop  is  meant  one  which  furnishes  material  for  making 


124  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

threads,  ropes  and  cloth.  Flax  is  a  very  old  crop,  having  been 
cultivated  in  early  times  in  Egypt.  It  is  grown  throughout  the 
world  in  temperate  climates.  Russia  is  the  largest  flax-pro- 
ducing country  in  the  world.  It  produces  both  seed  and  fibre. 
The  United  States  comes  next  as  a  seed  producer,  but  not  in 
fibre  productions.  North  Dakota,  Minnesota  and  South 
Dakota  are  the  largest  producers  in  the  United  States. 

A  moist,  deep  loam  soil  well  drained  is  best  for  flax.  Land 
good  for  corn  js  also  good  for  flax.  The  seed-bed  should  be 
made  quite  fine,  so  that  the  young  plants  can  get  their  food 
quickly.  The  seed  is  sown  in  May.  If  the  farmer  wants  to  get 
a  large  crop  of  seed  he  sows  about  two  or  three  pecks  of  seed 
per  acre;  if  he  wants  to  get  plants  good  for  fibre  he  sows  about 
one  and  a  half  to  two  bushels.  For  fibre  the  stems  should 
be  slender  and  not  branched,  so  they  need  to  stand  thickly 
in  the  field.  The  seeding  is  done  by  hand  or  with  the  drill. 

If  the  crop  is  raised  for  the  seed  it  can  be  cut  with  a  binder 
when  the  seeds  are  well  matured,  but  when  grown  for  fibre 
the  plants  are  usually  pulled  by  hand,  or  cut  very  low  with 
the  machine.  The  harvesting  for  fibre  begins  when  the  straw 
begins  to  turn  yellow.  The  pulled  stems  are  stood  up  in  small 
shocks  to  cure  and  the  heads  are  pulled  off  with  coarse 
combs,  or  a  **  header." 

The  farmer  usually  does  not  do  more  than  "  head  "  the  flax. 
He  then  sells  it  to  the  dealer  who  rets  it.  Retting  is  done  by 
exposing  the  straw  to  the  sun,  dew,  and  rain  for  several  days 
until  it  begins  to  rot,  when  the  outside  skin  comes  off  and  the 
long  fibres  or  threads  under  the  skin  can  be  easily  separated. 
These  fibres  are  made  up  into  linen  goods  of  various  kinds. 
The  retting  may  also  be  done  by  immersing  in  tanks  of  warm 
water  for  a  few  days. 


OTHER   FARM   CROPS  125 

Flax  raised  for  seed  makes  about  ten  to  fifteen  bushels  per 
acre.  The  seed  is  used  mostly  for  making  linseed  oil.  The 
seed  is  ground  and  the  oil  removed  by  pressing  with  heavy 
presses.  This  oil  is  used  for  paints,  linoleum,  oil  cloth  and 
many  other  things.  The  pressed  cake  is  ground  up  and  used 
to  feed  cattle  and  is  called  oil-cake  or  linseed  meal. 

Hemp. — Hemp  is  another  fibre  crop.  The  fibre  in  the 
plant  is  found  just  under  the  skin  of  the  stem  as  in  flax. 
The  fibre  is  obtained  by  retting  just  as  in  case  of  flax.  The 
fibre  is  used  mostly  for  making  ropes  and  coarse  cloth. 
Hemp  is  raised  extensively  in  many  parts  of  the  Old  World. 
Kentucky  produces  three-fourths  of  all  the  hemp  raised  in 
the  United  States.  A  good  hemp  soil  must  be  deep,  loose  and 
well  drained.  The  left-over  fertility  from  crops  previously 
well-manured  is  betfer  than  fresh  fertilizer. 

The  seed  is  sown  with  a  drill  about  the  same  time  that 
oats  are  sown.  About  one  bushel  of  seed  to  the  acre  is  used. 
It  is  desirable  to  get  an  even  stand  of  plants  so  that  they  will 
all  grow  up  uniformly.  The  plants  are  harvested  at  from 
eighty  to  one  hundred  and  forty  days  after  sowing.  After 
cutting  they  are  allowed  to  dry  a  few  days,  then  bound  or 
raked  into  bundles  and  stacked.  Hemp  will  keep  in  stacks 
for  two  or  three  years. 

Cotton. — Probably  the  most  important  fibre  plant  is  cot- 
ton. The  fibre  from  the  plant  consists  of  the  long,  fine  fibres 
attached  to  the  seeds  and  from  which  so  many  different  useful 
articles  are  made.  Three-fourths  of  the  world's  supply  of 
cotton  is  raised  in  twelve  states  of  the  United  States.  Cotton 
is  the  chief  farm  crop  in  ten  of  our  southern  states.  One-half 
of  the  value  of  our  agricultural  exports  is  made  up  of  cotton. 
To  raise  it  successfully  requires   a  long  growing  season, 


126  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

a  high  temperature,  a  well-distributed  rainfall  during  the 
growing  season,  and  little  rain  at  the  ripening  period.  These 
desirable  conditions  are  found  in  the  cotton-belt  states  to  a 
greater  extent  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  world. 

Cotton  is  a  very  old  plant  and  was  grown  in  the  Old  World 
at  least  five  centuries  before  the  time  of  Christ.  Pizarro 
found  the  mummies  of  Peru  wrapped  in  cotton  fabrics,  and 
Cortez  found  the  natives  of  Mexico  cultivating  the  cotton  plant. 

Cotton  belongs  to  the  same  family  of  plants  as  the  holly- 
hocks and  the  mallows.  It  is  a  strong  bushy  plant  and  grows 
from  two  to  four  feet  tall.  It  grows  from  the  seed  every  year, 
hence  it  is  an  annual.  The  flowers  are  white,  pale  yellow,  or 
cream-colored.  They  become  darker  and  redder  each  day 
until  they  fall  off  on  the  third  or  fourth  day.  A  little  boll  is  left 
where  the  flower  was.  This  develops  slowly  until  mature, 
when  it  bursts  open  and  exposes  the  seeds  to  which  the  white 
fibres  are  attached.  The  fibres  are  called  lint,  and  when 
separated  from  the  seeds  they  become  the  cotton  of  commerce. 

There  are  four  kinds  of  cotton,  namely:  Sea  Island  cotton, 
Upland  cotton.  Tree  cotton,  and  Indian  cotton.  1.  The  Sea 
Island  cotton  is  grown  along  the  coasts  of  South  Carolina, 
Georgia,  Florida,  and  the  islands  lying  near  by.  The  fibres  or 
staple  of  this  cotton  are  quite  long  and  sell  for  the  highest 
price.  2.  Upland  cotton  is  of  two  kinds,  smooth  and  hairy. 
Both  of  these  can  be  grown  on  the  uplands,  but  the  hairy  is 
the  principal  one  grown  in  the  United  States.  The  smooth 
has  long  staple  and  the  hairy  has  short.  3.  Tree  cotton  grows 
in  India  and  lives  five  or  six  years,  growing  as  tall  as  twenty 
feet.  It  has  short,  fine  fibres  and  is  not  much  grown.  4. 
Indian  or  Bush  cotton  is  also  raised  mainly  in  India.  It  has 
small  pods  and  few  seeds. 


OTHER   FARM   CROPS  127 

The  list  of  varieties  of  cotton  is  almost  endless.  Bulletin 
140  of  the  Alabama  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  names 
and  describes  over  two  hundred  varieties  as  being  grown  in 
the  United  States.  The  cotton  plant  is  greatly  influenced  by/ 
the  surroundings  of  climate  and  soil,  and  in  this  way  many 
varieties  arise. 

Cotton  can  be  grown  on  all  kinds  of  soil,  but  not  with  equal 
success.  Good  tillage  is  more  important  in  cotton  growing 
than  the  kind  of  soil.  Land  for  cotton  should  be  deeply 
plowed  and  well  fertilized  with  commercial  fertilizers  and 
with  leguminous  crops.  Stable  manure  should  also  be  used. 
A  good  system  of  rotation  should  be  used,  and  the  rotation 
should  contain  one  or  more  leguminous  crops.  The  cotton 
lands  of  the  South  have  been  carelessly  farmed,  as  a  rule, 
and  much  of  the  land  has  decreased  in  yielding  power.  After 
the  land  is  plowed  it  is  harrowed  several  times  to  kill  the 
weeds  before  planting.  The  seeds  are  planted  in  rows  which 
are  about  four  feet  apart  and  in  the  row  they  are  dropped  so 
that  the  plants  may  stand  about  twenty  inches  from  each 
other.  The  ground  must  be  quite  warm  before  the  seeds  are 
planted,  for  the  young  plants  do  not  grow  well  in  cool  soil. 
As  soon  as  the  plants  are  large  enough  cultivation  begins,  and 
the  aim  should  be  to  kill  weeds  and  keep  the  surface  mulched. 
Shallow  cultivation  is  considered  best  and  is  kept  up  as  long 
as  necessary. 

Cotton  is  harvested  by  picking  the  seed  cotton  from  the 
open  bolls  by  hand.  By  seed  cotton  is  meant  the  seeds  and  the 
lint  attached.  A  sack  is  carried  by  the  picker  and  into  it  he 
throws  the  seed  cotton.  Pickers  can  gather  from  one  hun- 
dred to  three  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  per  day,  one-third 
of  which  is  lint.     The  fields  have  to  be  gone  over  several 


128  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

times,  for  all  the  bolls  do  not  ripen  at  the  same  time.  The 
picking  season  lasts  about  ninety  to  one  hundred  days. 

After  picking,  the  seed  cotton  is  taken  to  the  cotton-gin, 
which  is  a  machine  for  separating  the  lint  from  the  seed.  It 
consists  of  a  number  of  circular  saws  fastened  on  a  wooden 
cylinder  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  apart.  These  revolve 
in  slits  less  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  wide,  cut  in  a  steel  plate. 
A  mass  of  seed  cotton  is  laid  on  the  plate  and  as  the  saws  re- 
volve the  teeth  catch  the  lint  and  pull  it  off  the  seeds.  Under 
the  plate  the  lint  is  brushed  off  the  teeth  by  a  revolving  brush. 
By  means  of  a  fan  the  lint  is  blown  through  a  flue  into  the  lint 
room  where  it  is  baled  for  market. 

The  seeds  are  used  for  making  many  different  products,  the 
main  ones  being  cotton-seed  meal  and  cotton-seed  oil.  From 
the  crude  oil  are  made  soaps,  salad  oils,  cottolene,  and  vari- 
ous other  articles. 


CHAPTER  XV 
SEED  SELECTION 

It  is  important  that  the  farmer  plant  good  seed,  for  the 
seed  is  the  foundation  of  the  new  crop.  Poor  seed  may  not 
grow  at  all,  or  if  it  does  grow,  it  may  give  such  a  poor  stand 
of  plants  that  the  crop  will  not  be  a  paying  one.  Again,  poor 
seed  may  bring  in  many  weed  seeds,  and  on  most  farms  there 
are  already  too  many  weeds.  Also  more  seed  is  required  to 
plant  an  acre  if  the  seed  is  not  good.  This  makes  an  extra 
expense. 

Purity. — In  choosing  seed  it  is  important  that  it  be  free 
from  weed  seeds,  chaff,  sticks  and  dirt.  Some  farm  crop 
seeds  look  very  much  like  some  other  seeds  which  are  not 
useful,  so  that  it  is  easy  for  dishonest  seedsmen  to  put  into  the 
good  seed  some  of  these  less  valuable  seeds  and  sell  the  mix- 
ture to  the  farmer  without  the  farmer's  knowing  it.  The 
seeds  of  yellow  trefoil  and  bur  clover  look  very  much  like 
alfalfa  seeds,  and  they  are  often  found  in  samples  of  alfalfa 
seed.  The  yellow  trefoil  can  also  be  easily  mixed  with  clover 
seed.  A  weed  seed  known  as  buckhorn  is  very  often  found  in 
clover  and  alfalfa  seeds.  Small  seeds  like  the  clovers  and 
grasses  usually  contain  more  weed  seeds  and  mixtures  than 
large  seeds,  because  they  are  more  difficult  to  get  clean  in 
threshing  and  also  because  the  farmer  does  not  know  their 

129 


130  AGRICULTURE    FOR   COMMON   SCHOOLS 

shape  and  appearance  so  well  as  he  does  large  seeds  like 
wheat  and  oats. 

Genuineness. — By  genuineness  is  meant  trueness  to  name. 
When  a  farmer  buys  a  certain  variety  of  grain  he  wants  to  be 
sure  that  he  is  getting  the  true  variety.  The  seeds  of  different 
varieties  of  the  same  grain  usually  look  much  alike.  For 
example,  one  cannot  often  tell  by  looking  at  the  grain  what 
variety  a  sample  of  wheat  or  oats  is.  It  very  often  happens 
that  two  varieties  get  more  or  less  mixed  in  the  threshing,  so 
that  the  resulting  crop  from  such  seed  will  be  still  more 
mixed.  Two  corn  varieties  will  mix  when  the  pollen  from 
one  blows  on  the  other.  Sometimes  the  mixed  seed  is  not 
objectionable,  but  it  is  if  the  farmer  wishes  to  sell  his  seed  for 
pure  varieties. 

Vitality. — By  vitality  we  mean  whether  or  not  the  seed 
will  grow.  The  vitality  of  seed  is  affected  most  by  its  age. 
It  is  not  safe  to  plant  seeds  of  our  garden  crops  after  they  are 
more  than  one  year  old.  Most  field  crop  seeds,  like  corn, 
wheat,  oats,  and  clover,  are  good  for  two  years  and  even 
longer  if  they  have  been  carefully  stored. 

Seed  which  has  been  harvested  before  it  is  fully  ripe  is  not 
so  good  as  fully  ripe  seed.  It  will  germinate  more  quickly, 
but  the  young  plants  will  not  be  so  strong  as  those  from  well- 
ripened  seed. 

Grain  intended  for  seed  should  be  kept  in  dry,  cool  places. 
It  should  not  be  exposed  to  wide  ranges  of  temperature,  or 
be  kept  where  it  is  damp  at  one  time  and  dry  at  another,  as 
often  happens  where  corn  is  stored  in  rail  pens  or  poorly  pro- 
tected cribs.  Corn  well  dried  out  will  stand  a  temperature 
of  as  much  as  fifteen  degrees  below  zero  before  the  germ  will 
be  injured. 


SEED  SELECTION  '       131 

In  selecting  seed  one  should  give  attention  to  its  weight, 
plumpness,  and  lustre.  Heavy  seed  is  best,  because  it  has 
more  material  packed  in  it  for  the  young  plant  than  a  light 
seed.  Shrivelled  and  light  seeds  should  not  be  used  if  better 
can  be  had.  They  will  probably  grow  all  right,  but  the  plants 
from  them  are  not  likely  to  be  so  thrifty.  The  importance  of 
using  the  fanning-mill  to  get  the  heavy  and  plump  seed  can 
easily  be  seen.  By  lustre  is  meant  the  appearance  of  the 
seed,  whether  it  is  fresh  or  dull  looking.  New  seed  always 
has  a  fresh,  shiny  appearance,  while  old  seed  has  lost  its 
freshness.  If  one  compares  clover  seed  three  years  old  with 
fresh  seed  the  meaning  of  lustre  and  its  importance  are  easily 
understood. 

Home-grown  Seed. — Crops  which  have  been  grown  in  the 
same  neighborhood  for  several  years  have  become  used  to  the 
climate  and  soil  and  their  seed,  if  carefully  selected,  will  usually 
give  larger  crops  than  seed  brought  from  a  distance.  Corn  is 
a  crop  that  cannot  be  changed  very  far  without  bad  results. 
Sometimes  if  corn  is  taken  but  a  few  miles  and  planted  on 
different  soil  it  will  not  give  a  good  crop.  Most  farm  crops 
do  not  "run  out,"  as  the  farmers  say,  but  potatoes  and  oats, 
if  not  carefully  selected,  do  seem  to  lose  in  quality  and  yielding 
power,  in  the  warmer  climates,  and  new  seed  from  northern 
places  will  give  a  larger  crop.  If  new  seed  is  to  be  obtained 
it  should  be  obtained  from  some  northern  point,  or  from  a 
point  east  or  west.  It  will  not  do  as  a  rule  to  bring  seed  from 
the  south  to  the  north,  because  it  is  used  to  a  longer  season  of 
growth  and  will  not  ripen  at  the  right  time. 

Testing  Seed. — After  what  has  been  said  above  it  seems 
clear  that  the  farmer  should  use  great  care  in  selecting  his  seed 
for  a  new  crop.    Small  seeds  like  clover  and  timothy  should 


132  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

be  examined  for  weed  seeds  and  mixtures.  Then  a  number 
of  seeds  should  be  put  to  germinate  on  a  plate  between  blot- 
ting papers  or  folds  of  cloth  with  another  plate  covering  the 
top.  They  should  be  kept  moist  and  in  a  temperature  of 
about  70°  F.  In  four  days  it  can  be  told  what  seeds  will  grow. 
The  same  plan  can  be  used  for  wheat  and  oats,  but  for  corn 
a  larger  tester,  like  that  on  page  76,  should  be  used.  For 
a  method  of  testing  corn  see  page  76. 

The  Seed  Plat. — By  the  seed  plat  is  meant  a  small  piece  of 
ground  on  which  the  farmer  plants  extra  good  seed  to  get  seed 
for  his  next  year's  crop.  This  is  used  mostly  for  seed  corn, 
but  should  be  used  for  all  the  farm  crops.  Many  farmers  now 
select  choice  ears  of  corn  and  plant  them  on  a  separate 
plat  of  ground  to  which  extra  care  is  given.  The  seed  corn 
for  the  next  crop  is  then  picked  from  this  plat.  Such  seed 
gives  better  yields  than  seed  selected  from  the  general  crop. 
Wheat  and  oats  would  produce  better  if  farmers  were  to  sow 
a  half  acre  or  more  with  choice  seed  each  year  and  use  the 
resulting  crop  for  sowing  the  next  main  crop.  , 


CHAPTER  XVI 

ROTATIONS 

If  a  farmer  raises  corn  in  a  certain  field  one  year,  and  the 
next  year  sows  the  same  field  in  oats,  sowing  clover 
with  the  oats,  so  that  the  third  year  he  has  clover  in  the  same 
field,  and  then  in  the  fourth  year  he  plants  the  field  in  corn 
again  and  follows  it  again  with  the  oats  and  clover,  he  is  rais- 
ing crops  in  rotation.  A  rotation,  then,  is  raising  two  or  more 
crops  in  such  a  way  that  they  follow  each  other  in  a  definite 
order.  If  two  crops  alternate  with  each  other  on  the  same 
field,  a  two-course  rotation  is  said  to  be  followed.  When  three 
crops  are  used  it  is  a  three-course  rotation,  and  so  on.  When 
a  rotation  is  followed  out  completely,  the  farmer  has  as  many 
fields  as  he  has  crops  in  his  rotation,  or  some  multiple  of  the 
number. 

The  farmer  raises  crops  in  rotation  in  order  to  get  the 
largest  returns  from  his  land.  Larger  total  returns  will  be 
obtained  from  a  piece  of  land  when  it  is  rotated  in  corn,  wheat 
and  clover,  for  example,  than  if  corn  or  wheat  is  grown  every 
year  on  the  same  piece  of  ground. 

A  properly  selected  rotation  enables  the  farmer  to  keep  up 
the  fertility  of  his  land.  It  does  this  in  several  ways.  In  the 
first  place,  while  all  crops  use  the  same  kinds  of  plant  food 
they  do  not  use  them  in  the  same  amounts.  Corn  uses  nitro- 
gen, phosphoric  acid,  and  potash,  but  it  does  not  use  so  much 

133 


134  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

phosphoric  acid  as  wheat,  and  uses  more  potash.  A  rotation 
then  keeps  the  plant  food  in  the  soil  in  balance. 

Secondly,  plants  have  different  root  systems,  and  so  draw 
their  food  from  the  soil  differently.  Oats  and  wheat  have 
shallow  root  systems  and  get  most  of  their  food  near  the  sur- 
face. Corn  has  a  large  root  system  and  draws  from  the  soil 
near  the  surface  as  well  as  rather  deep  down  in  the  soil. 
Clover  and  alfalfa  have  long  tap  roots  and  get  their  food 
mostly  from  the  deeper  layers  of  soil.  By  using  plants  having 
such  differences  in  their  root  systems  a  larger  volume  of  soil 
is  made  to  furnish  food  for  plants. 

Thirdly,  a  proper  rotation  always  has  a  legume  crop  in  it. 
As  we  have  already  learned,  the  legumes  leave  in  the  soil 
more  nitrogen  than  they  take  out,  that  is,  they  gather  nitro- 
gen. All  other  crops,  however,  use  up  nitrogen  and  do  not 
gather  any.  So  it  can  be  seen  that,  with  a  proper  rotation, 
the  nitrogen  supply  in  the  soil  can  be  kept  up. 

In  the  fourth  place,  a  rotation  enables  the  farmer  to  hold  in 
check  to  some  degree  injurious  insects,  troublesome  weeds, 
and  some  plant  diseases.  Few  of  these  pests  can  be  com- 
pletely controlled  by  rotation  systems,  but  nearly  all  can  be 
made  less  harmful.  For  example,  the  corn  root  louse  is  not 
often  troublesome  where  a  rotation  is  used ;  the  weed  known 
as  ragweed  is  held  in  check;  and  a  disease  of  potatoes  known 
as  potato  scab  is  rarely  injurious  where  potatoes  are  raised 
on  different  fields  each  year. 

Besides  all  the  above  advantages  the  rotation  method  en- 
ables the  farmer  to  raise  live  stock  and  feed  his  crops  at 
home.  This  gives  larger  quantities  of  manure  for  the  land, 
and  consequently  lessens  the  need  for  commercial  fertilizers. 
Furthermore,  the  rotation   system  gives  work   throughout 


ROTATIONS  135 

more  of  the  year  than  if  only  one  kind  of  crop  were  raised. 
This  keeps  the  farmer  employed  all  the  time,  and  if  he  has  to 
keep  hired  help  he  can  engage  it  by  the  year,  which  is  better 
than  hiring  it  by  the  day. 

Notable  Rotations. — One  of  the  oldest  and  most  noted 
systems  of  rotations  is  the  Norfolk  rotation.  This  was  devel- 
oped in  Norfolk  County,  England,  and  has  been  used  there 
for  many  years.  It  is  a  four-course  rotation  consisting  of  tur- 
nips, barley,  clover,  and  wheat  in  the  order  named.  If  we 
study  this  rotation  we  shall  see  that  it  is  helpful  in  the  ways 
mentioned  above.  It  contains  a  leguminous  crop,  the  clover; 
it  has  deep  feeding  crops,  the  clover  and  turnips;  it  has  shallow 
feeding  crops,  the  barley  and  wheat;  and  none  of  these  crops 
is  troubled  by  the  same  kind  of  insects,  plant  diseases,  or 
weeds  as  the  others. 

Another  noted  rotation  is  the  Terry  rotation.  It  was  used 
by  Mr.  T.  B.  Terry,  in  Ohio,  for  building  lip  a  run-down  clay 
farm.  It  consists  of  clover,  potatoes,  and  wheat.  In  this 
rotation  we  have  clover  as  the  legume  and  deep  feeding  crop, 
potatoes,  which  also  feed  through  a  large  volume  of  soil,  and 
wheat,  which  is  a  shallow  feeder. 

In  the  corn-belt  states  corn,  oats  or  wheat,  and  clover  is  a 
common  rotation.  In  many  cases  the  rotation  is  corn,  oats, 
wheat,  and  clover,  and  sometimes  timothy  is  sown  with  the 
clover,  and  the  land  is  kept  in  clover  and  grass  for  two  or 
more  years. 

Now,  a  rotation  to  be  a  proper  one  must  be  suited  to  the 
climate  and  soil  of  the  region  in  which  it  is  to  be  used.  It 
must  also  be  suited  to  the  labor  and  market  conditions.  In 
very  few  cases  could  the  farmers  in  the  United  States  use  the 
Norfolk  rotation,  for  the  turnips  would  have  to  be  planted  in 


136  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

rows  and  cultivated  largely  by  hand,  and  we  could  not  get 
laborers  enough  to  manage  so  many  as  twenty  or  twenty-five 
acres  of  turnips,  nor  could  we  dispose  of  the  turnips  after 
they  were  raised.  There  would  be  no  market  for  them  and 
few  farmers  would  have  enough  live  stock  to  eat  them.  The 
Terry  rotation  is  better.  While  it  would  require  considerable 
labor  to  handle  twenty  acres  of  potatoes,  yet  such  a  thing  is 
possible,  and  the  clover  and  wheat  can  be  easily  handled. 
All  of  these  products  would  find  a  good  market.  The  corn- 
belt  rotation  is  most  popular,  because  the  crops  in  it  are  easily 
raised,  find  a  ready  market,  and  are  well  adapted  to  a  wide 
range  of  soils.  A  rotation  of  cotton,  wheat,  and  clover  would 
not  be  profitable  to  farmers  in  the  corn  belt  states,  for  the 
climate  is  not  right,  and  they  could  hardly  get  enough  laborers 
to  pick  the  cotton.  There  are  many  kinds  of  rotations  used, 
but  enough  has  been  said  to  show  what  things  need  to  be 
taken  into  account  in  the  choosing  of  a  rotation. 


SECTION   III.— HORTICULTURE 

CHAPTER  XVII 
I.  POMOLOGY 

Before  going  further  we  need  to  know  the  difference 
between  horticulture  and  agriculture.  Professor  Bailey  says 
that  "agriculture  in  its  largest  meaning  is  the  raising  of 
products  from  the  land."  However,  "agriculture  is  usually 
limited  to  the  growing  of  grain,  forage,  bread-stuffs,  textiles, 
and  the  like,  and  to  the  raising  of  animals.  Horticulture  is 
the  growing  of  flowers,  fruits  and  vegetables,  and  of  plants 
for  ornament  or  fancy."  We  see  from  these  definitions  that 
what  we  have  been  saying  about  soils  and  crops  and  what 
we  shall  say  about  animals  and  dairying  is  to  be  considered 
under  agriculture,  while  what  we  are  now  to  say  about  fruits, 
vegetables,  and  flowers  refers  to  horticulture. 

Horticulture  is  of  two  kinds :  that  which  is  concerned  with 
growing  such  fruits,  vegetables,  flowers  and  shrubs  as  almost 
every  farmer  will  want  on  his  farm  and  that  which  is  con- 
cerned with  the  growing  of  certain  kinds  of  fruits,  etc.,  on  a 
large  scale,  that  is,  for  market  purposes.  Professor  Bailey 
divides  horticulture  into  four  main  divisions:  *  1.  Pomology, 
which  means  the  growing  of  fruits.  2.  Olericulture,  the 
growing  of  vegetables.  3.  Floriculture,  the  raising  of  orna- 
mental plants  for  their  individual  uses  or  products.    4.  Land- 

*  Cyclopedia  of  Horticulture,  topic  Horticulture. 
137 


138  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

scape  Horticulture,  or  the  growing  of  plants  for  their  use  in 
the  landscape.  These  terms  will  be  explained  more  fully  as 
each  is  taken  up.  For  our  purpose  the  last  two  will  be  con- 
sidered under  one  head,  that  of  landscape  gardening. 

Pomology  is  the  term  used  to  cover  the  growing  of  all 
kinds  of  fruit.  Now  fruits  may  be  classed  as  tree  fruits, 
like  apples  and  cherries;  vine  fruits,  like  grapes;  and  small 
fruits,  like  raspberries  and  strawberries.  Instead  of  the  term 
pomology  we  shall  use  the  more  common  name — fruit- 
growing. We  shall  first  speak  in  a  general  way  of  the  loca- 
tion of  orchards  and  fruit  gardens. 

The  orchard  and  fruit  garden  should  be  planted  on  sloping 
land  whenever  possible.  A  hillside  with  a  stream  along  its 
foot  is  a  very  desirable  place  to  plant  fruits.  A  hillside  is  a 
good  place  because  it  allows  air-drainage.  By  air-drain- 
age we  mean  that  air  will  have  a  tendency  to  settle  to  the 
lower  ground  and  move  off  down  the  valley.  It  is  a  known 
fact  that  it  gets  colder  in  the  valleys  and  low  places  than  it 
does  on  the  hillsides.  Frosts  and  fogs  occur  in  the  valley 
before  they  do  on  the  hilltops.  So  trees  and  bushes  planted 
on  a  hillside  are  less  likely  to  be  injured  by  frosts  and  the  cold 
of  winter  than  if  they  were  planted  in  the  low  places.  It 
takes  only  a  few  feet  of  a  rise  in  the  land  to  make  a  good 
deal  of  difference  in  the  temperature.  Furthermore,  it  is  not 
desirable  to  have  the  orchard  surrounded  by  a  thick  growth 
of  forest  trees,  as  it  hinders  the  movement  of  the  air. 

The  direction  in  which  the  land  slopes  is  an  important 
item.  A  north  or  north-west  slope  is  good  for  apples,  pears, 
plums,  and  cherries,  but  not  for  peaches  and  grapes.  How- 
ever, fruits  with  the  most  brilliant  colors  are  raised  on  south- 
ern slopes.    While  it  is  not  necessary  to  have  wind-breaks  to 


POMOLOGY  139 

protect  against  the  cold,  it  has  been  found  that  a  wind-break 
on  the  windy  and  sunny  side  is  helpful  in  preventing  the 
blowing  off  of  the  fruit  and  in  protecting  against  hot  winds. 
The  air  on  a  northern  slope  is  cooler  than  that  on  the  southern 
slope.  This  is  desirable  in  spring  because  the  buds  and  blos- 
soms will  not  start  so  soon  and  will  thus  probably  escape  the 
frosts  that  usually  follow  a  warm  spell.  Some  people  cover 
the  ground  around  their  trees  with  straw  or  manure  when 
the  ground  is  frozen,  so  that  it  will  not  thaw  out  quickly  in 
spring  and  the  blossoms  thus  be  held  back.  Such  covering 
does  no  good,  for  the  starting  of  the  buds  is  influenced  by  the 
temperature  of  the  air.  If  the  end  of  a  grape-vine  or  peach- 
limb  be  pulled  into  a  warm  room  through  a  hole  in  the  win- 
dow, it  will  put  out  buds  in  a  short  time,  although  the  roots  of 
the  vine  or  tree  are  frozen  solid  in  the  ground. 

Fruits  can  be  grown  on  almost  any  kind  of  soil.  There  is 
little  excuse  for  a  farmer  to  be  without  fruit  because  his  soil 
is  not  right.  Of  course  each  kind  of  fruit  does  like  a  certain 
kind  of  soil  better  than  another.  We  shall  speak  of  these  as 
we  take  up  the  individual  fruits.  In  general  all  fruits  and 
ornamental  trees  and  shrubs  do  best  on  a  good  soil  having  a 
porous  subsoil,  that  is,  one  that  permits  the  surplus  water  to 
drain  away  and  allows  the  roots  to  grow  downward  easily. 
Such  a  soil  does  not  get  so  dry  in  dry  weather  nor  so  wet 
in  wet  weather  as  one  having  a  compact  subsoil.  If  one  is 
raising  fruit  in  a  large  way  for  market,  he  should  select  land 
which  is  naturally  well  adapted,  but  drainage,  irrigation,  or 
fertilization,  as  the  case  may  require,  will  usually  give  ade- 
quate returns. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
PROPAGATION  OF  THE  FRUITS 

The  number  of  plants  of  any  of  the  fruits  can  be  increased 
in  one  or  more  of  four  different  ways,  namely,  from  seeds, 
by  layering,  by  cuttings,  and  by  grafting. 

Planting  the  seeds  of  a  desirable  variety  in  order  to  get 
more  of  that  variety  is  not  very  satisfactory,  because  usually 
the  new  trees  or  bushes  will  not  bear  the  same  kind  of  fruit 
as  the  one  from  which  the  seed  came.  For  example,  if  we 
were  to  plant  the  seeds  from  a  Baldwin  apple  the  young  trees 
from  those  seeds  would  not  bear  Baldwin  apples,  because  the 
blossom  which  produced  the  Baldwin  apple  was  probably  fer- 
tilized with  pollen  from  the  blossoms  of  a  different  kind  of 
apple.  The  seeds  in  the  new  apple  will  produce  trees  which 
will  have  some  of  the  qualities  of  both  kinds  of  apples.  When 
one  smells  a  dandelion  blossom  he  gets  some  yellow  dust  in 
his  nose;  this  is  pollen.  When  pollen  is  carried  from  one 
flower  to  another  the  second  flower  is  said  to  be  fertilized  by 
the  first.  The  bees  and  the  wind  are  active  agents  in  carrying 
pollen.  The  seeds  from  plums,  grapes,  gooseberries,  straw- 
berries, and  all  other  fruits  act  in  the  same  way  as  those  from 
apples. 

Layering  is  a  common  method  of  getting  new  plants  of 
black-cap  raspberries,  dewberries,  and  strawberries.  In  lay- 
ering the  plants  are  covered  with  soil  at  the  ends  or  at  the 

140 


PROPAGATION  OF  THE   FRUITS  141 

joints.  New  canes  come  up  from  around  the  base  of  the  old 
plants  of  raspberries  and  dewberries  and  grow  quite  rapidly. 
They  soon  bend  over  and  the  tips  after  a  while  touch  the 
ground.  These  tips  often  take  root  of  their  own  accord,  but 
they  can  be  helped  by  having  a  shovelful  of  dirt  thrown  on 
them.  In  fall  or  the  following  spring,  the  new  plants  can  be  cut 
loose  from  the  parent  stems.  Strawberries  send  out  runners, 
which  take  root  without  any  help  and  thus  make  many  new 
plants.  Grapes  can  also  be  increased  by  layering.  Vines 
of  the  previous  year's  growth  are  best.  They  are  laid  down 
in  the  spring  and  covered  three  or  four  inches  deep.  New 
plants  start  from  almost  every  bud.  In  the  fall  these  layers 
should  be  lifted  and  the  new  plants  cut  loose  from  each  other. 
A  cutting  is  a  part  of  the  parent  plant  cut  off  and  stuck  in 
the  moist  ground,  where  it  takes  root  and  produces  a  new 
plant.  For  fruits  two  kinds  of  cuttings  are  used — roots  and 
stems.  Cuttings  are  used  mainly  for  blackberries,  grapes, 
currants,  and  gooseberries.  The  roots  of  blackberries  are 
used — roots  a  quarter-inch  or  more  in  diameter.  They  are 
dug  up  in  the  autumn,  cut  into  pieces  a  couple  of  inches  long, 
and  stored  in  dry  sand  in  the  cellar  until  spring.  When 
the  ground  is  warm  these  cuttings  are  planted  two  or  three 
inches  deep  in  good  soil.  They  soon  begin  to  grow  and  make 
good  plants.  For  grapes,  currants,  and  gooseberries  the  new 
growth  of  stem  is  cut  in  the  autumn  and  stored  in  dry  sand 
the  same  as  blackberry  roots,  or  they  may  be  planted  at  once 
in  the  fall.  When  stored  in  sand  the  cut  end  callouses,  or 
heals,  over,  and  this  is  probably  better  than  to  plant  the 
fresh  cutting.  Early  in  spring  the  cuttings  are  stuck  or 
planted  in  the  ground.  They  are  usually  eight  or  ten  inches 
long,   but  may  be  shorter.     Every  cutting  must  have  at 


142  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

least  two  buds  on  it.  One  is  covered  up  in  the  ground  to 
make  roots,  the  other  is  left  exposed  to  grow  into  a  new  stem. 
Where  plants  are  raised  in  large  numbers,  cuttings  of  all 
kinds  are  usually  started  into  growth  in  hot-house  beds. 

By  grafting  is  meant  the  taking  of  a  part  of  a  plant  and 
fastening  it  on  another  plant  in  such  a  way  that  the  two  be- 
come firmly  united  by  growth.  The  part  which  is  taken  is 
called  the  scion  (sometimes  it  is  just  a  bud)  and  the  part  or 
plant  to  which  it  is  grafted  is  called  the  stock.  The  tree  fruits 
are  the  ones  usually  grafted.  Nearly  all  the  fruit  trees  bought 
from  the  nurseries  have  been  grafted.  The  nurseryman  sows 
the  seeds  of  trees,  and  when  the  young  trees,  called  seedlings, 
are  large  enough  the  variety  which  he  wants  to  increase  is 
grafted  on  the  roots.  A  fruit  is  not  always  grafted  on  the 
same  kind  of  stock.  For  example,  pears  may  be  grafted  on 
quinces,  apples  on  crab-apples,  peaches  on  plums.  Very 
often,  however,  a  variety  is  grafted  on  another  variety  of  the 
same  kind,  but  one  which  is  hardier  and  less  useful.  This 
is  usually  done  with  peaches,  plums,  and  cherries. 

There  are  many  ways  of  grafting.  They  can  be  classified 
in  three  groups:  budding,  scion-grafting,  and  in-arching. 
Budding  is  very  extensively  used  for  peaches  and  cherries. 
In  budding  two  slits  are  made  on  the  stock  through  the  bark 
to  the  wood  with  a  sharp  knife  and  the  bark  loosened  a  little 
next  the  slits.  One  of  the  slits  is  made  up  and  down  and  the 
other  crosswise.  A  bud  cut  from  a  branch  of  the  desired 
variety  is  slipped  into  the  slits  and  the  bark  bound  down  to 
the  bud  by  wrapping  with  a  narrow  piece  of  muslin;  nursery- 
men use  raffia.  In  cutting  the  bud  just  a  small  amount  of 
the  surrounding  bark  is  left  attached  and  the  cut  is  made 
deep  enough  to  take  a  very  little  of  the  wood  just  under  the 


26.    METHODS   OF   GRAFTING 
Cleft-grafting 

A.  Scion.     B.  Cleft.     C  and  D  Scion  in  place  and  waxed 
Budding 

A.  Bud.     B.  Slit  in  stock.     C.  Bud  in  place  and  tied 
Whip  or  splice-grafting 
A.  Scion  and  stock  without  tongues.      B.  Scion  and  stock  with  tongues 
By  courtesy  of  the  Pennsylvania  Department  of  Agriculture 


144  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

bud.  Budding  is  usually  done  during  the  growing  season, 
either  summer  or  fall,  but  it  is  sometimes  done  in  the  spring. 
It  is  always  done  on  young  trees.  The  next  spring  after 
budding,  the  part  of  the  stock  above  the  bud  is  cut  away. 

In  scion-grafting  sl  scion,  or  twig,  containing  one  or  more 
buds  is  fastened  to  the  stock  in  such  a  way  that  the  green- 
colored  tissue  under  the  bark  of  each  comes  in  contact  on 
at  least  one  side.  The  scions  are  cut  from  the  previous 
season's  growth  in  the  fall  or  winter,  or  even  in  the  spring 
before  growth  starts.  These  scions  are  kept  in  sand  or  moss 
in  a  cool  place  until  wanted.  When  the  stock  used  is  a  root, 
the  process  is  called  r.oot-grafting;  when  the  graft  is  made 
just  at  the  surface  of  the  ground  it  is  called  crown-grafting; 
when  on  the  trunk  just  below  the  limbs,  stem-grafting;  and 
when  on  the  branches,  top-grafting. 

There  are  two  principal  ways  of  grafting  with  scions :  whip- 
grafting  and  cleft-grafting.  In  the  first  the  stock  and  the  scion 
are  each  cut  to  a  long  one-sided  wedge  shape.  A  tongue  is 
cut  in  each  wedge  by  splitting  slightly  with  the  knife.  The 
two  cut  surfaces  are  brought  together  and  the  tongues  slipped 
into  each  other.  The  green  wood  of  the  two  must  come 
together  on  at  least  one  side.  The  scion  and  the  graft  are 
now  wrapped  tightly  with  waxed  cord.  This  method  is  used 
almost  entirely  in  root  and  crown-grafting  and  also  in  stem- 
grafting  when  the  stem  is  small.  Sometimes  the  scion  and 
the  stock  are  cut  in  the  wedge  shape  and  brought  together 
without  cutting  the  tongues.  Such  a  connection  is  called  a 
splice-graft.  If  the  whip  or  splice-graft  stands  outside  the 
ground,  it  must  be  covered  with  wax.     (See  cleft-grafting.) 

The  second  method,  or  cleft-grafting,  is  used  with  large 
stems  and   branches.     The  stem   or  branch   is  sawed   off 


PROPAGATION  OF  THE   FRUITS  145 

straight  and  then  split  sHghtly  with  a  knife  or  thin-bladed 
instrument  (nurserymen  have  special  tools).  The  scion  is 
cut  to  a  two-sided  wedge  shape  and  pushed  into  the  split  in 
the  stock.  The  scion  is  always  much  smaller  than  the  stock 
and  care  must  be  taken  that  the  green  bark  of  one  comes  in 
contact  with  the  other.  A  cleft-graft  does  not  need  to  be 
bound  with  raffia  or  twine,  because  the  stock  is  strong  enough 
to  hold  the  scion  firmly.  However,  the  split  part  and  all  about 
the  scion  must  be  covered  with  grafting  wax  to  keep  out  the 
water.  When  the  branch  or  stem  to  be  grafted  is  a  large  one, 
two  scions  are  generally  put  in,  one  on  each  side. 

A  good  grafting  wax  can  be  made  by  melting  together  three 
parts  of  resin,  three  parts  of  beeswax,  and  two  parts  of  tallow. 
When  cool  it  can  be  applied  with  a  small  paddle  or  old  knife. 
This  wax  should  be  used  on  all  large  wounds,  because  they 
do  not  heal  until  the  new  growth  grows  over  the  cut  ends  from 
the  green  part  of  the  bark.  If  wounds  are  left  uncovered  they 
are  apt  to  begin  decaying  and  thus  weaken  the  tree  or  limb. 

In-arching  is  a  method  of  grafting  two  plants  which  stand 
near  each  other.  Each  plant  remains  growing  on  its  own  root 
until  the  joined  parts  have  grown  together.  To  in-arch  two 
plants  it  is  only  necessary  to  cut  away  the  bark  where  they 
come  together  and  tie  them  firmly  with  rafiBa  or  narrow  strips 
of  cloth.  If  the  plants  joined  are  woody  plants,  the  parts 
should  be  covered  with  wax.  In-arching  is  practised  mostly 
with  soft-wooded  and  herbaceous  plants.  When  the  parts 
have  grown  together,  the  scion  is  cut  loose  from  its  root  and 
the  process  is  done. 

The  methods  of  grafting  and  increasing  plants  described  in 
this  chapter  are  modified  in  many  ways  by  nurserymen  and 
fruit  growers,  but  the  principle  is  always  the  same. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

TILLAGE 

Land  which  has  been  planted  in  fruit  should  be  cultivated 
in  much  the  same  way  as  land  planted  to  other  crops.  Of 
course  before  the  fruit  has  been  set  out  the  land  has  been 
deeply  plowed  and  thoroughly  prepared.  For  several  years 
after  trees  have  been  set  out,  the  land  can  be  cultivated  in 
such  crops  as  corn  and  potatoes.  These  are  called  hoed  crops, 
because  we  try  to  keep  down  all  weeds  by  cultivation.  Such 
crops  as  wheat,  oats,  and  timothy  should  not  be  raised  in  an 
orchard.  They  choke  the  trees  too  much.  Cultivating  in  the 
orchard  has  the  same  effect  as  it  has  in  other  fields.  It  saves 
moisture,  kills  weeds,  and  makes  plant  food  available.  What- 
ever kind  of  fertilizer  is  applied  to  the  crop  is  also  helpful  to 
the  trees.  Potatoes  are  one  of  the  best  crops  to  raise  in  a  small 
orchard,  because  they  occupy  the  ground  only  a  couple  of 
months  during  the  summer.  The  tops  of  the  potatoes  shade 
the  ground  well,  but  the  tops  of  the  trees  are  not  shaded  and 
crowded  as  they  are  when  corn  is  grown  in  the  orchard.  Po- 
tatoes can  be  dug  early  in  the  fall  and  with  a  harrow  the 
ground  can  be  put  in  shape  for  the  sowing  of  a  cover  or 
mulching  crop,  such  as  rye,  crimson  clover,  or  cow-peas.  It 
is  quite  desirable  to  have  some  covering  on  the  ground  during 
the  autumn  and  winter,  for  the  crop  prevents  a  loss  of  the 
available  plant  food  by  using  it  in  growing.     Furthermore, 

146 


TILLAGE 


147 


the  covering  has  a  tendency  to  hold  water  and  let  it  soak  into 
the  soil,  thus  storing  it  up  for  the  next  season  as  well  as  keep- 
ing the  land  from  wash- 
ing. The  covering  also 
prevents  the  evaporation 
of  moisture  early  in  the 
spring,  and  when  it  is 
turned  under  it  adds  hu- 
mus to  the  soil,  which  we 
have  learned  is  useful. 

Where  the  land  is 
planted  to  vines  and 
small  fruits  it  will  not 
be  desirable  to  try  to 
grow  any  kind  of  crop 
between  the  rows,  but 
the  plants  themselves  are 
cultivated  all  through  the 
growing  season,  except 
during  the  season  of 
fruiting.  Cover  or  mulch- 
ing crops,  however,  are 
desirable  for  winter  pro- 
tection. 

Many  fruit  growers  after  their  trees  have  become  large 
enough  to  produce  fruit,  stop  cultivating  and  let  the  land  be- 
come set  in  grass.  Other  growers  keep  their  orchards  bare 
and  do  not  let  anything  grow  under  or  between  the  trees. 
Growers  of  fruit  should  not  forget  to  fertilize  and  manure 
their  trees.  Too  many  farmers  believe  that  a  fruit  tree  does 
not  need  anv^  manure  or  fertilizer.    A  load  of  stable  manure 


27.      A   BASKET   OF   FINE    PEACHES 

The  large  size  and  uniformity  were  secured 

by  judicious  thinning 

By  courtesy  of  Ohio  Experiment  Station 


148  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

spread  around  an  old  apple  tree  that  no  longer  bears  good 
fruit  will  make  a  great  difference  within  a  year.  Stable  ma- 
nure is  always  good  to  spread  on  orchard  land.  It  adds  plant 
food  and  humus  to  the  soil.  In  addition,  phosphoric  acid 
and  potash  fertilizers  are  very  helpful.  Good  cultivation  and 
heavy  fertilizing  will  give  large  returns  in  fruit  of  large  size, 
brilliancy  of  color  and  fineness  of  flavor. 


CHAPTER  XX 
SETTING  THE  ORCHARD  AND  CARING  FOR  IT 

After  a  site  has  been  chosen  and  the  land  prepared,  the 
next  thing  in  order  is  to  lay  out  the  field  in  a  definite  plan  and 
set  the  trees.  However,  before  this  is  done  there  must  have 
been  some  attention  given  to  the  kinds  of  fruit,  the  varieties 
and  the  selection  of  trees.  For  family  use  there  ought  to  be 
a  few  trees  of  all  kinds  of  fruit  that  will  grow  in  the  locality. 
There  ought  to  be,  if  it  is  possible  to  grow  them,  apples,  pears, 
peaches,  plums,  and  cherries.  Where  fruit  is  grown  only  for 
the  use  of  the  family  not  many  trees  of  any  one  kind  will  be 
needed,  but  two  or  more  trees  of  each  kind  will  afford  a  vari- 
ety of  tree  fruits  as  well  as  give  fruit  at  different  times  of  the 
season.  In  the  selection  of  varieties,  the  farmer  or  grower 
needs  to  take  into  account  the  tastes  of  the  family,  the  adapta- 
tion of  the  varieties  to  the  climate,  their  yielding  power,  and 
their  time  of  ripening  fruit.  If  care  is  given  to  this  last  point, 
there  can  be  fresh  ripe  fruit  for  use  nearly  the  entire  summer. 

Where  a  grower  is  raising  fruit  for  market,  he  will  usually 
raise  only  one  or  two  kinds  of  fruit,  and  only  a  few  varieties 
of  these  kinds.  He  will  choose  such  kinds  and  varieties  as 
sell  well  on  the  market  and  by  reason  of  their  handsome 
appearance  and  good  quality  bring  big  prices.  He  will  also 
want  varieties  that  are  large  yielders.  To  the  grower  raising 
fruit  for  home  use  only,  the  quality  of  the  fruit  is  important. 

149 


150  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

He  wants  good  flavor  rather  than  size  and  handsome 
appearance. 

It  is  best  to  get  trees  from  a  home  nursery  if  such  is  to  be 
found.  The  buyer  can  go  there  after  his  trees  and  will  be 
more  certain  of  getting  the  varieties  which  he  wants.  He  can 
also  select  the  size  of  trees  desired.  Trees  obtained  from  a 
home  nursery  will  be  better  adapted  to  the  climate  than  those 
obtained  from  a  distance.  If  no  home  nursery  is  to  be  reached, 
one  must  buy  from  nurseries  at  a  distance.  The  most  reliable 
rather  than  the  cheapest  one  should  be  patronized.  It  is  best 
to  buy  northern  grown  trees.  Trees  one  or  two  years  old  are 
to  be  preferred.  They  do  not  yet  have  very  large  tops  and  the 
grower  can  shape  the  tops  to  suit.  Young  trees  suffer  less  in 
the  transplanting  and  begin  growing  almost  as  though  they 
had  not  been  moved.  Trees  four  or  five  years  old  will  lose 
a  year  or  more  in  recovering  from  the  set-back  due  to  cutting 
off  so  many  roots  and  so  much  top  as  is  necessary  in  moving 
them. 

Having  selected  the  trees  it  is  best  to  have  them  dug  early 
in  the  spring  before  growth  begins  and  brought  to  the  place 
where  they  are  to  be  transplanted.  Here  they  should  be 
heeled  in  until  time  to  reset.  By  heeling  in  is  meant  the  cov- 
ering of  the  roots  of  the  young  trees  as  they  are  bound  together 
in  the  bunch.  One  digs  a  shallow  hole  and  puts  in  the  entire 
bunch  of  roots  and  covers  them  with  soil.  When  buds  have 
begun  to  start  on  other  fruit  trees,  the  heeled-in  trees  can  be 
dug  out  and  reset.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  cut  ends  of  the 
roots  have  begun  to  heal,  or  callous,  over  and  young  roots  have 
started.  This  condition  is  desirable,  and  such  trees  will  grow 
better  than  trees  freshly  dug  and  reset. 

In  setting  out  trees  in  the  hpuseyard  or  around  buildings, 


SETTING  THE   ORCHARD   AND  CARING  FOR  IT      151 

no  attention  is  given  to  getting  them  in  straight  Hnes,  but 
when  an  orchard  is  to  be  set  out  care  is  usually  taken  to  have 
the  trees  in  straight  rows.  To  do  this  requires  careful  meas- 
uring and  the  setting  of  a  stake  where  each  tree  is  to  stand. 
Even  after  this  is  done  it  is  difficult  to  dig  the  hole  and  set  the 
tree  so  that  it  will  stand  exactly  where  the  stake  stood. 
"The  only  method  by  which  this  can  be  done  is  by  having 
a  stake  set  wherever  a  tree  is  to  stand,  then  have  a  board 
about  six  inches  wide  and  six  feet  long  (as  shown  in  Fig.  28) . 
Cut  a  notch  in  one  side  at  the  middle  just  about  large  enough 


-6Ft— 


28.      A   PLANTING   BOARD 
An  easy  device  for  setting  trees  in  line 

for  the  stem  of  the  tree,  bore  a  hole  in  each  end  exactly  the 
same  distance  from  the  middle  notch.  Then,  whenever  a  tree 
is  to  be  planted,  place  the  board  on  the  ground  with  the 
notch  around  the  stake  and  stick  two  other  pegs  through  the 
holes  in  the  ends,  remove  the  board,  leaving  the  two  pins 
remaining,  dig  the  hole,  replace  the  board  and  set  the  tree 
with  the  stem  in  the  notch."*  Such  a  board  as  described 
above  is  called  a  planting  board  and  is  very  helpful. 

The  distance  apart  to  set  trees  is  important.  Trees  which 
grow  large  and  live  many  years  should  be  set  far  apart. 
Trees  which  have  small  tops  when  grown  and  which  do  not 
live  many  years  can  be  set  quite  close.  In  setting  large 
orchards  care  should  be  taken  that  there  is  room  enough 
between  trees  so  that  teams  and  wagons  can  be  driven  be- 
tween them  when  gathering  the  fruit,  spraying  the  trees,  or 

*  Bulletin  152,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Pennsylvania. . 


152  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

cultivating  the  ground.  Apple  trees  should  stand  about  35 
or  40  feet  apart  in  the  rows,  pears  20  feet  (dwarf  pears  10 
feet),  peaches,  plums,  and  cherries  16  to  20  feet,  and  quinces 
about  12  feet.  In  planting  an  apple  orchard  many  growers 
plant  peaches,  pears,  or  cherries  between  the  apple  trees,  be- 
cause the  apple  grows  slowly  and  does  not  begin  to  bear  fruit 
for  several  years,  whereas  the  peaches,  pears,  and  cherries 
begin  to  bear  fruit  in  two  or  three  years.  As  the  apple 
trees  become  larger  the  other  fruit  trees  can  be  cut  out.  In 
this  way  the  orchard  is  made  to  pay  returns  almost  at  once, 
but  such  practice  is  often  bad  for  the  apple  trees,  because  it 
crowds  them  and  robs  them  of  their  food.  Then,  too,  the 
grower  does  not  like  to  cut  out  a  peach,  pear,  or  cherry  tree 
that  is  thrifty  and  bearing  lots  of  fruit. 

In  transplanting,  care  should  be  taken  to  set  the  young  tree 
properly.  Usually  it  is  leaned  a  little  toward  the  direction  from 
which  the  wind  generally  comes.  This  is  to  prevent  it  from 
being  blown  in  the  opposite  direction.  As  it  becomes  older  it 
will  usually  stand  straight.  If  the  roots  have  been  badly  torn 
and  bruised  in  digging  from  the  nursery  row,  the  torn  ends 
should  be  cut  off.  The  wounds  will  then  soon  callous,  or  heal 
over,  and  young  roots  quickly  start.  Where  trees  have  been 
"  heeled  in "  this  trimming  should  have  been  done  before  the 
heeling  in.  The  loose  soil  should  be  carefully  filled  in  around 
the  roots  and  pressed  down  with  the  foot.  The  surface 
should  be  left  loose  to  act  as  a  mulch.  If  there  is  any  sod,  it 
should  be  turned  upside  down  in  the  hole.  It  is  usually  not 
necessary  to  pour  water  around  the  tree  when  transplanting. 
If  watering  is  done  after  transplanting  the  ground  should  be 
thoroughly  soaked,  for  a  slight  watering  does  more  harm  than 
good.    After  the  tree  is  set  it  will  be  necessary  to  prune  the 


SETTING  THE   ORCHARD   AND   CARING  FOR   IT      153 

top,  because  in  digging  up  the  young  trees  probably  more  than 
half  of  the  roots  were  left  in  the  ground.  There  will  not  be 
enough  roots,  therefore,  to  supply  food  and  moisture  for  the 
large  number  of  leaves  that  will  come  on  the  top  if  it  is  left 
unpruned.  The  top  should  be  cut  back  more  than  the  roots 
have  been  reduced.  Some  growers  cut  off  all  the  branches 
and  leave  the  young  tree  as  a  single  straight  stem;  others 
cut  the  branches  back  a  good  deal,  depending  upon  the  age 
of  the  tree.  The  first  method  is  probably  better  for  peaches 
and  the  last  better  for  the  other  tree  fruits.  In  the  last 
method  the  head,  or  top,  is  started  at  once,  while  by  the 
first,  one  waits  until  the  second  year  to  start  the  head. 

The  head  is  started  at  various  distances  from  the  ground, 
depending  upon  the  climate.  In  cold  climates  the  head  is 
formed  so  that  the  lower  branches  are  only  two  or  three  feet 
from  the  ground,  while  in  warmer  regions  it  may  be  much 
higher.  The  low  head  is  more  convenient  when  the  fruit  is  to 
be  picked,  but  the  high  heads  are  more  easily  worked  around 
in  cultivating.  In  shaping  the  head  of  the  tree  care  should  be 
taken  not  to  have  two  limbs  starting  from  the  same  place  on 
the  stem.  Such  a  condition  forms  a  crotch  and  when  the  tree 
is  heavy  with  fruit,  the  limbs  are  apt  to  split  apart  there. 

After  the  head  is  started  the  young  trees  should  be  pruned 
carefully  each  year.  Usually  not  much  will  have  to  be  cut  off 
at  one  time.  Such  limbs  as  will  not  give  the  shape  desired 
should  be  removed,  and  when  there  are  too  many  limbs  some 
must  be  cut  out.  If  the  tree  is  growing  too  fast  the  longer 
limbs  are  cut  back.  This  is  called  heading  in  and  is  much 
practised  by  some  who  wish  to  keep  the  heads  of  their  trees 
small  and  compact.  Usually,  however,  care  should  be  taken 
that  the  heads  do  not  become  too  thick.    Limbs  should  be 


154  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

cut  out  until  the  head  is  rather  open.  This  gives  admission  to 
air  and  sunlight  and  permits  the  fruit  on  the  inside  of  the  top 
to  ripen  at  the  same  time  as  the  outer  fruit  and  also  be  well 
colored. 

Sometimes  when  trees  begin  to  bear  fruit  the  grower  dis- 
covers that  the  fruit  is  not  the  kind  that  he  wants.  In  such 
cases,  if  he  wishes,  the  groover  can  top-graft  his  trees  with  the 
varieties  which  he  desires.  In  top-grafting  the  top  is  cut  back 
severely  and  small  scions  are  introduced  into  all  the  larger 
limbs.  The  small  limbs  are  cut  off  entirely,  and  limbs  having 
a  diameter  of  one  inch  or  more  are  used  for  the  stocks.  Top- 
grafting  is  hard  on  the  tree  because  so  many  wounds  are 
made,  but  the  tree  usually  recovers  and  bears  fruit  from  the 
grafts. 

Orchards  which  have  never  been  cared  for  can  usually  be 
made  to  bear  good  fruit  rather  easily.  Such  trees  should  be 
pruned  sensibly,  washed,  scraped,  and  sprayed.  Too  many 
limbs  should  not  be  cut  out  at  once.  The  trunks  should  be 
washed  with  strong  soap  suds,  using  a  stiff  brush.  Before 
washing  it  is  well  to  scrape  the  old  bark  and  moss  from  the 
large  limbs  and  the  trunk  with  a  hoe.  The  whole  tree  should 
be  sprayed  with  Bordeaux  mixture.  (See  Chapter  XXIX.) 
The  spraying  and  washing  will  soak  up  the  bark  so  that 
the  tree  can  grow  well.  The  spraying  and  washing  also  kill 
insects  and  fungus  diseases.  Such  treatment  of  old  orchards 
is  called  renovating. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
THE  FRUITS 

The  tree  fruits  may  be  divided  into  pome  and  stone  fruits. 

1.  Pome  Fruits. — The  apple,  pear,  and  quince  are  called 
'pomes,  because  they  contain  a  core  in  which  are  the  seeds. 

The  Apple. — The  apple  is  one  of  the  oldest  cultivated 
fruits  in  the  temperate  zone.  It  originated  in  Eastern  Europe 
and  Western  Asia.  Some  varieties  of  the  crab-apple  came 
from  European  or  Siberian  ancestry,  while  others  came  from 
our  native  American  wild  crab-apple,  or  from  crosses  of  it 
and  the  European  crab-apple. 

When  fine,  large  apples  are  desired  thinning  should  be 
practised.  This  is  done  by  pulling  off  some  of  the  young 
apples  when  they  are  as  large  as  small  nuts.  Thinning  is 
tedious  work,  but  will  pay  well  in  fine  fruit. 

Apple  varieties  are  classed  as  summer,  autumn,  and  winter 

sorts.     There  are  many  good  varieties  of  each  kind — more 

than  we  can  attempt  to  name  here.     Yellow  Transparent, 

Early  Harvest,  Red  Astrachan,  Duchess,  and  Benoni  are 

good  summer  varieties.    For  autumn  use  the  Maiden  Blush, 

Wealthy,  Rambo,  Fall  Pippin,  Bellflower,  and  Grimes'  Golden 

are  excellent.     Rome  Beauty,  Ben  Davis,  Smith's  Cider, 

Tulpehocken,  and  Winesap  are  good  keepers  for  winter  use. 

All  varieties  are  greatly  influenced  by  conditions  of  soil  and 

climate,  and  a  variety  which  is  popular  in  one  section  may 

not  be  at  all  satisfactory  in  some  other  place. 

155 


THE   FRUITS  157 

Some  good  varieties  of  crab-apples  are  Transcendent, 
Siberian,  and  Hyslop. 

The  Pear. — The  pear  was  probably  first  cultivated  in 
Asia,  although  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  many  varieties 
first  came  into  use  in  Europe.  It  is  said  that  the  best  soil  for 
pears  is  **a  strong  loam  of  moderate  depth  with  a  dry  sub- 
soil." *  Pears  are  dwarfed,  that  is,  made  to  grow  small  tops, 
by  being  grafted  on  quince  roots.  But  even  when  so  grafted 
the  top  has  to  be  trimmed  back  considerably  to  keep  it  from 
growing  too  large.  To  get  fine  fruit,  pears  should  be  thinned 
so  that  the  young  pears  hang  from  four  to  six  inches  from  each 
other.  The  flavor  of  pears  is  improved  if  they  are  picked 
before  fully  ripe  and  placed  in  a  cool,  dry  place  on  the  floor 
or  on  shelves  and  allowed  to  ripen  slowly.  Air  currents  should 
not  blow  over  them.  Pears  to  be  kept  for  winter  use  should  be 
put  into  barrels  or  boxes  and  kept  in  a  cool  place.  The  time 
to  pick  is  when  the  fruit  will  separate  easily  from  the  twig. 
Some  varieties  of  pears  cannot  fertilize  their  own  blossoms 
and  must  be  planted  with  such  varieties  as  are  self-fertile. 

The  Anjou,  Bartlett,  Clapp's  Favorite,  and  Lawrence  are 
good  varieties,  but  cannot  fertilize  themselves.  They  should 
be  planted  with  some  of  the  following,  also  good  varieties: 
Flemish  Beauty,  Keiffer,  Le  Conte,  Seckel,  and  Angouleme. 

The  Quince. — This  fruit  is  found  growing  wild  both  in 
Europe  and  in  Asia.  In  the  United  States  the  quince  is 
grown  mostly  east  and  south-east  of  the  Great  Lakes.  It  is 
used  mostly  for  jellies  and  preserves.  It  requires  rich,  moist 
soil  to  give  the  best  crops.  It  is  usually  allowed  to  grow  up 
as  a  bush,  having  a  number  of  stems  from  the  base.  It  can 
also  be  pruned  into  a  tree.    The  fruit  is  usually  not  picked 

*  Downing. 


158  AGRICULTURE   FOR   COMMON  SCHOOLS 

until  it  has  been  frosted  a  couple  of  times,  although  some  pick 
the  fruit  when  yet  green  and  ripen  it  in  a  cool,  dark  room. 

Two  of  the  best  varieties  are  the  Orange  and  Champion. 
A  variety  known  as  the  Japanese  quince  is  used  entirely  for 
ornamental  purposes.  It  has  beautiful,  showy  red  flowers. 
The  fruit  is  useless  and  is  small  both  in  size  and  quantity. 

2.  Stone  Fruits. — The  cherry,  plum,  peach,  prune,  and 
apricot  are  called  stone  fruits,  because  the  seed  is  enclosed  in 
a  hard,  stony  shell. 

The  Cherry. — This  fruit  came  from  Asia.  There  are  two 
kinds  of  cherries,  sweet  and  sour.  The  sweet  cherry  is  often 
called  the  heart  cherry.  With  the  sweet  cherry  the  blossoms 
appear  with  the  leaves,  while  with  the  sour  cherry  the  blos- 
soms come  first.  Sweet  cherries  do  not  stand  transplanting 
well,  many  of  the  trees  dying.  It  is  better  to  plant  seeds  where 
trees  are  to  grow  and  then  bud  with  buds  from  trees  which 
have  been  good  producers  of  fruit.  The  sour  cherries  are 
easily  transplanted.  Cherries  will  grow  on  almost  any  soil 
not  too  wet,  but  a  well-drained,  light  loam  soil  is  best.  The 
head  of  the  cherry  tree  should  be  started  near  the  ground  in 
order  to  make  it  easy  to  pick  the  fruit  and  also  to  protect  the 
stem  of  the  tree  from  the  hot  sun,  which  often  scalds  or  burns 
the  bark,  sometimes  killing  the  tree.  Trees  do  not  need 
much  pruning  after  they  begin  to  bear. 

Some  of  the  best  sour  varieties  are  the  Early  Richmond, 
Dyehouse,  English  Morello,  and  Montmorency.  Of  sweet 
cherries  the  Governor  Wood,  Windsor,  and  Black  Tartarian 
are  among  the  best  varieties. 

The  Plum. — The  plum  is  native  to  America,  Europe,  and 
Asia.  Many  good  varieties  have  come  from  each  of  these 
countries.     The  central  states  are  as  well   adapted   as  any 


THE    FRUITS  159 

place  in  the  world  to  the  growing  of  plums.  Plums  are  usually 
started  from  the  seeds  and  then  budded.  It  is  best  to  bud  in 
damp  weather,  and  the  bud  is  usually  placed  on  the  north  side. 
Scion  grafting  is  also  practised,  but  must  be  done  in  early 
spring.  Plums  grow  in  all  kinds  of  soil  and  differ  somewhat 
according  to  variety,  but  best  crops  are  obtained  on  heavy 
loams  or  clays.  Two  or  three  varieties  should  be  planted  to- 
gether so  that  the  blossoms  will  fertilize  each  other.  The  fruit 
should  be  thinned  so  that  no  two  plums  touch  each  other. 
Some  of  the  best  varieties  of  plums  are:  Wild  Goose,  Robin- 
son, Bradshaw,  Lombard,  Green  Gage,  Abundance,  Blue 
Damson,  Burbank,  Red  June,  and  Satsuma. 

The  prune  is  a  plum,  firmer  and  not  quite  so  juicy  as 
ordinary  plums.  It  is  usually  dried  before  being  put  on  the 
market.  The  Fellenberg,  York  State,  and  German  prune 
are  among  the  best  prune  varieties. 

The  Peach. — The  peach  is  more  largely  sold  on  the  market 
than  any  other  stone  fruit.  Because  of  the  ease  with  which 
they  may  be  grown  almost  every  farmhouse  has  a  number  of 
peach  trees  about  it.  Peaches  first  came  from  Persia.  They 
are  not  able  to  stand  the  cold  winters  of  northern  regions, 
but  nearly  all  the  states  in  the  Union  produce  some  peaches, 
while  Michigan,  Long  Island,  Maryland,  Georgia,  Alabama, 
and  California  are  famous  for  them. 

A  rich,  sandy  loam  soil  is  best  for  peaches.  Heavy  soils  are 
to  be  avoided,  if  possible.  The  soil  usually  has  an  influence 
over  the  flavor.  Young  trees  are  started  from  seeds  sown  in 
autumn.  The  next  spring  they  come  up  and  are  large  enough 
to  be  budded  in  August.  Grafting  is  hardly  ever  practised, 
because  the  cuts  do  not  heal  quickly.  In  getting  buds  for 
budding,  select  from  trees  which  have  borne  fruit.     Care 


160  AGRICULTURE   FOR   COMMON  SCHOOLS 

should  be  taken  not  to  select  fruit  buds,  but  leaf  buds. 
Trees  should  be  carefully  pruned  while  young,  and  when 
they  begin  to  bear  they  will  not  need  much  pruning.  Cut- 
ting back  about  one- third  of  the  new  growth  each  year  is 
enough.  The  peaches  are  always  borne  on  the  growth  of  the 
previous  year.  To  get  fine  fruit,  peaches  should  be  thinned 
so  that  they  are  three  or  four  inches  apart  on  the  twigs. 

Varieties  of  peaches  may  be  classed  as  free-stones  and 
cling-stones,  that  is,  in  one  the  flesh  comes  loose  from  the 
seed  easily  when  ripe,  while  in  the  other  the  flesh  clings 
closely  to  the  seed  and  has  to  be  cut  away.  The  flesh  may 
be  white,  yellow,  or  red  blushed  in  either  class.  Some  of  the 
good  varieties  are  as  follows:  free-stones.  Old  Mixon  Free, 
Champion,  Stump,  Elberta  (most  widely  planted  of  all  vari- 
eties), and  Early  and  Late  Crawfords;  cling-stones.  Carmen, 
Heath  Cling,  Sneed,  and  Steady's  Cling. 

The  Apricot. — This  fruit  resembles  both  the  plum  and  the 
peach.  It  comes  into  blossom  quite  early  in  spring  before 
any  other  fruit  tree  and  is  often  frosted  so  that  no  fruit  is 
produced.  It  is  cared  for  the  same  as  the  peach.  The  Large 
Early  and  Moorpark  are  considered  good  varieties. 

The  Nectarine  is  a  kind  of  peach.  The  seeds  from  it 
sometimes  produce  peaches  and  sometimes  nectarines. 

3.  Vine  Fruits. — The  Grape. — The  grape  is  our  only  vine 
fruit.  Grapes  are  more  largely  used  as  a  fruit  in  the  United 
States  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  world,  although  their 
culture  was  known  in  Europe  and  Asia  centuries  before 
America  was  discovered.  Most  of  our  grape  varieties  have 
been  developed  from  our  native  wild  varieties.  The  wild  fox 
grape  has  furnished  most  of  the  varieties  grown  in  the  north- 
ern and  eastern  states;    the  summer  grape  those  for  the 


THE   FRUITS  161 

southern  states;  and  the  wild  grape  of  the  river  banks  the 
varieties  for  the  western  and  south-western  states.  On  the 
Pacific  coast  most  of  the  varieties  are  of  European  origin.  It 
is  here  that  the  raisin  grapes  are  raised. 

Grapes  will  grow  in  any  well-drained  soil,  but  best  in  a 
dark-colored  loam  not  too  fertile.  Grapes  are  usually  propa- 
gated by  cuttings  or  by  layering.  Commercial  growers  keep 
the  young  vines  closely  pruned  back  until  they  are  four  years 
old  and  then  let  them  bear  only  a  few  bunches  of  fruit.  The 
farmer  usually  does  not  cut  back  his  vines  so  much.  The 
commercial  grower  trains  his  vines  to  grow  on  a  trellis,  or  a 
stake.  The  farmer  lets  his  vines  run  along  the  side  of  a  build- 
ing or  on  a  roof  and  sometimes  over  an  archway  to  make 
shade  as  well  as  fruit.  Finer  fruit  will  be  obtained  if  not  too 
many  clusters  are  allowed  to  grow  on  a  vine.  It  is  best  for  the 
vine  to  cut  it  back  heavily  every  year,  leaving  only  one  or 
two  buds  on  a  branch  and  not  many  branches  on  a  main 
stem.  Pruning  is  best  done  in  the  autumn  or  very  early  in 
spring.  If  the  vine  is  pruned  in  the  spring  the  sap  is  apt  to 
ooze  from  the  cut  end  ("bleed")  and  weaken  the  vine. 

The  varieties  are  classed  as  purple,  red,  and  white.  Of  the 
purple  ones,  Moore's  Early,  Worden,  and  Concord  are  good; 
of  the  red,  Brighton,  Salem,  and  Delaware;  and  of  the  white, 
Diamond,  Niagara,  and  Martha. 

4.  Small  Fruits. — Of  the  small  fruits  the  currant,  goose- 
berry, raspberry,  blackberry,  and  dewberry,  are  commonly 
called  biosh  fruits  from  their  habit  of  growth. 

The  Currant. — All  our  good  varieties  of  currants  have  been 
brought  from  Europe  or  developed  from  European  varieties. 
The  currant  naturally  likes  cool  conditions  and  so  does  best 
in  a  rather  compact  soil.    However,  the  soil  should  be  fertile 


162  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

and  it  is  well  to  manure  the  currant  heavily.  It  is  good  prac- 
tice to  mulch  around  currant  bushes  with  straw,  rotted  saw- 
dust, or  coarse  manure.  The  mulching  keeps  the  soil  moist 
and  cool.  New  plants  are  obtained  easily  by  planting 
cuttings.  These  can  be  made  in  August  from  the  shoots 
of  the  same  year's  growth.  These  cuttings  should  be  about 
six  inches  long.  They  are  stuck  in  the  ground  until  only  the 
top  end  is  exposed.  They  will  take  root  the  same  fall.  Cur- 
rants do  not  need  much  pruning,  except  to  keep  the  bushes 
from  getting  too  thick  and  having  too  many  old  stems.  The 
currants  are  produced  on  stems  which  are  one  year  old  or 
more.    Stems  older  than  three  years  ought  to  be  removed. 

The  best  varieties  are  the  Pomona,  Red  Dutch,  Wilder, 
Fay,  White  Grape,  and  White  Dutch.  The  last  two  are  white 
in  color  and  are  used  for  dessert  purposes  mainly. 

The  Gooseberry. — Most  of  our  gooseberry  varieties  are  of 
American  origin.  There  are  some  good  varieties  from  West- 
ern Europe  and  England,  but  they  are  more  likely  to  be 
attacked  by  mildew,  a  kind  of  plant  disease,  than  our  Ameri- 
can sorts.  New  plants  are  obtained  by  cuttings  and  from  lay- 
ering. It  is  better  to  plant  the  cuttings  very  early  in  spring 
after  keeping  them  buried  in  a  dry  place  out  of  doors  all  win- 
ter.   Otherwise  they  are  cared  for  just  as  currants. 

Some  of  the  best  American  varieties  are  Downing,  Cham- 
pion, Houghton,  Pearl,  and  Smith.  Of  the  European  the  In- 
dustry, Chautauqua,  and  Portage  are  fairly  good. 

The  Raspberry. — There  are  two  principal  kinds  of  rasp- 
berries: the  blackcap  and  the  red.  There  are  also  yellowish- 
colored  raspberries.  These  are  "sports"  from  the  red  vari- 
eties. A  sport  is  an  oddity — an  accident.  No  one  has  been 
able  as  yet  to  explain  just  what  causes  "sports." 


THE   FRUITS  163 

The  blackcap  varieties  mostly  have  black-colored  berries 
and  are  native  Americans.  They  grow  best  on  sandy  or  clay 
loam  soils  that  are  rich,  moist,  and  well-drained.  Plenty  of 
humus  in  the  soil  is  desirable  because  it  holds  moisture.  Suc- 
cess with  any  kind  of  berries  depends  upon  having  the  soil 
moist  at  fruiting  time.  Plenty  of  stable  manure  is  a  good  fer- 
tilizer for  blackcap  varieties.  The  plants  are  increased  by 
the  tips  of  the  new  canes  taking  root  at  the  ends.  The 
berries  are  borne  on  canes  one  year  old.  As  soon  as  the 
berries  are  ripe  these  canes  die  and  should  be  removed. 
To  keep  new  canes  from  getting  too  tall  they  should  be 
pinched  off  at  the  tips  when  two  or  three  feet  high.  This  will 
cause  them  to  send  out  many  side  branches  which  will  also 
have  to  be  pinched  back  when  they  are  ten  or  twelve  inches 
long.  Such  treatment  makes  strong,  sturdy  plants.  New 
plants  should  be  set  in  the  spring  and  the  old  canes  attached 
to  them  should  be  cut  off  near  the  ground  so  that  no  berries 
will  be  produced  the  first  year. 

The  red  raspberries  are  of  two  kinds  which  are  much  alike. 
One  is  of  American  origin  and  the  other  is  from  Europe.  The 
red  varieties  do  not  take  root  at  the  tip  of  the  canes,  but  send 
up  many  suckers  from  their  roots.  New  plants  can  also  be 
produced  from  root  cuttings.  The  red  varieties  are  better 
when  not  pinched  back  during  the  summer,  but  should  be 
cut  back  to  a  height  of  three  or  four  feet  the  next  spring. 
Red  raspberries  grow  on  about  the  same  soil  as  the  black- 
caps. 

Some  good  varieties  of  the  blackcaps  are  Gregg,  Kansas, 
Black  Diamond,  Nemeha,  and  Conrath.  Of  the  red  varieties 
the  Cuthbert,  Loudon,  Miller,  and  Marlboro  are  good.  The 
Golden  Queen  is  a  good  yellow  variety. 


164  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

The  Blackberry. — This  fruit  is  cultivated  only  in  America. 
Our  varieties  are  all  American.  The  soil  and  treatment  for 
blackberries  is  almost  entirely  the  same  as  for  raspberries.  In 
pruning  new  canes  it  is  well  to  wait  until  the  blossom-buds 
appear  in  the  spring,  otherwise  the  crop  may  be  cut  short  by 
pruning  off  the  very  parts  which  would  produce  fruit.  The 
old  canes,  of  course,  are  removed  in  autumn.  Early  varieties 
are  to  be  preferred  on  account  of  danger  that  dry  weather  will 
cut  the  crop  short.  Some  of  the  best  varieties  are  Snider, 
Erie,  Agawam,  Eldorado,  and  Ancient  Briton. 

The  Dewberry. — The  fruit  and  plant  of  the  dewberry  look 
very  much  like  the  blackberry.  The  plants  have  a  trailing 
habit  of  growth.  There  are  few  flowers  in  a  cluster  and  the 
middle  one  opens  first,  while  in  a  blackberry  the  outer  flow- 
ers open  first.  Dewberries  ripen  their  fruit  earlier  in  the  sea- 
son than  do  blackberries.  Dewberries  increase  their  plants 
by  taking  root  at  the  tips  of  the  canes;  blackberries  produce 
new  plants  from  suckers  or  root  cuttings. 

The  Lucretia  is  about  the  best  variety.  The  Windom, 
Mayes,  and  Bartel  are  also  good  in  certain  sections. 

The  Strawberry. — The  strawberry  is  a  small  fruit  in  a  class 
by  itself.  It  is  found  wild  in  Europe,  in  North  America,  and 
in  South  America.  Our  cultivated  varieties  are  derived  from 
the  mixing  of  varieties  from  all  three  sources.  Strawberries 
will  grow  on  any  good  soil.  It  should  be  deeply  plowed  and 
worked  down  to  a  firm  seed-bed.  Autumn  plowing  is  best. 
Leave  the  soil  rough  and  harrow  it  in  spring.  The  plants 
should  be  set  early  in  spring  and  should  not  be  allowed  to 
bear  fruit  the  first  year.  In  selecting  plants,  only  young  ones 
should  be  used.  Young  plants  always  have  bright  yellow 
roots.    They  are  usually  planted  in  rows.    For  large  patches 


THE   FRUITS  165 

the  rows  are  three  or  four  feet  apart  and  the  plants  eighteen 
inches  apart  in  the  row.  For  a  small  patch  they  may  be  closer 
set.  The  plants  should  be  cultivated  during  the  summer  and 
runners  should  not  be  allowed  to  grow  until  July.  The  plant 
will  in  this  way  be  stronger. 

Some  varieties  of  strawberries  do  not  produce  any  stamens, 
but  only  pistils.  Such  varieties  are  called  pistillate;  other 
varieties  have  both  stamens  and  pistils  and  are  said  to  be 
perfect.  In  planting  a  patch  of  strawberries  it  is  necessary  to 
mix  the  pistillate  and  perfect  varieties,  or  else  the  pistillate 
varieties  will  not  get  fertilized  and  cannot  produce  fruit.  As 
soon  as  a  crop  of  berries  is  harvested  it  is  a  good  plan  to  mow 
off  the  leaves  and  as  soon  as  they  are  dry  burn  them.  This 
destroys  many  insects  and  weeds  and  the  new  growth  of 
leaves  will  be  all  the  more  thrifty.  A  patch  should  not  bear 
more  than  two  years  before  being  plowed  up. 

There  are  many  good  varieties.  Warfield,  Bubach,  and 
Haverland  are  pistillate.  Clyde,  Gandy,  Jesse,  Bederwood, 
Cumberland,  Parker  Earle,  and  Sharpless  are  good  perfect 
varieties. 


CHAPTER  XXII 
II.  OLERICULTURE  OR  VEGETABLE  GROWING 

PLANNING  AND  PREPARING  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

Before  beginning  this  discussion  of  our  subject  it  will  be 
necessary  to  make  clear  what  is  meant  by  vegetables.  In  the 
scientific  sense  all  plants  are  vegetables,  because  all  plant 
life  belongs  to  the  vegetable  kingdom.  We  say,  also,  when 
speaking  scientifically,  that  whatever  results  from  a  blos- 
som is  a  fruit,  whether  it  be  an  apple,  a  pepper,  a  tomato, 
a  walnut,  or  a  cone  from  a  pine  tree.  But  in  common  usage, 
practically  everything  which  is  raised  in  the  garden  or  truck 
patch,  except  the  small  fruits,  is  called  a  vegetable.  Hence, 
we  call  tomatoes,  peppers,  potatoes, .  cabbages,  peas,  sweet 
corn,  pumpkins,  and  all  such,  vegetables. 

Every  farm  has  its  garden  and  truck  patch.  Usually  the 
two  are  separate.  In  the  garden  are  usually  grown  a  few  of  the 
smaller  and  earlier  vegetables  like  radishes,  onions,  beans  and 
peas,  along  with  some  small  fruits.  In  the  truck  patch  are 
grown  potatoes,  tomatoes,  sweet  corn,  cucumbers  and  the 
like.  The  labor  in  the  garden  is  done  by  hand;  in  the  truck 
patch  largely  with  a  horse. 

Now  it  will  be  a  saving  of  time  and  labor  if  the  garden  and 
truck  patch  are  combined  into  one  and  so  arranged  that  the 
labor  can  be  done  by  a  horse  and  horse-tools.  Such  a  garden 
should  be  laid  out  with  long  rows,  so  that  there  will  not  need 

166 


OLERICULTURE   OR  VEGETABLE    GROWING  167 

to  be  much  turning  in  preparing  and  cultivating  the  ground. 
It  is  not  necessary  that  every  row  be  complete  with  only  one 
kind  of  vegetable.  Several  kinds  can  be  planted  in  the  same 
row.  If  bush  fruits  are  grown  in  the  garden,  they  should 
occupy  one  side  of  it  so  as  to  be  out  of  the  way  as  much  as 
possible.  Such  plants  as  hold  their  places  for  several  years, 
like  asparagus  and  rhubarb,  should  also  be  put  at  one  side. 
If  only  annuals  are  raised  the  garden  can  have  a  place  in  the 
corn  field  nearest  the  house,  but  this  is  usually  not  satisfac- 
tory, because  the  men  are  not  so  likely  to  use  care  in  cultivat- 
ing the  small  garden  plants  as  they  would  if  the  garden  plants 
were  alone  in  a  separate  plat  of  ground.  Then,  too,  the  vege- 
table garden  should  be  near  the  house  in  order  to  be  con- 
venient. 

A  rich  sandy  loam,  or  loam,  soil  is  best  adapted  for  most 
vegetables.  If  the  plat  of  ground  slopes  slightly  to  the  south 
or  south-west  it  is  all  the  better.  A  northern  slope  should  not 
be  chosen  unless  one  wishes  to  raise  late  vegetables.  The 
land  should  be  well  drained,  either  naturally  or  by  under- 
draining.  If  the  subsoil  is  very  hard  and  compact,  subsoiling 
will  be  helpful.  However,  under-draining  and  deep  plowing 
will  make  subsoiling  rarely  necessary. 

Land  for  vegetables  should  always  be  carefully  prepared. 
The  seed  is  usually  small  and  the  young  plants  are  weak,  so 
that  it  is  necessary  that  the  seed-bed  be  very  fine  and  mellow. 
Stable  manure  is  the  most  widely  used  fertilizer.  It  should  be 
thoroughly  rotted,  so  that  the  weed  seeds  are  pretty  well  killed 
out.  Men  who  raise  large  quantities  of  vegetables  for  market 
frequently  use  commercial  fertilizers.  The  commercial  fertil- 
izers do  not  bring  any  weed  seeds  to  the  soil,  while  the  stable 
manures  are  often  quite  full  of  them. 


168  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

In  the  preparation  of  the  rotted  manure  for  the  garden  it  is 
well  to  gather  the  manure  from  the  stables  and  put  it  in  a  pile. 
As  soon  as  it  begins  to  heat  it  should  be  forked  over  so  as 
to  mix  the  outside  with  the  inside.  The  forking  over  also 
keeps  it  from  getting  too  hot  and  burning.  Should  the  pile 
seem  too  dry,  water  can  be  put  on,  but  care  should  be  used 
not  to  add  too  much.  It  will  be  necessary  to  fork  over  the 
heap  several  times  before  it  will  be  done  heating.  It  can  then 
be  piled  in  a  tall  heap  and  allowed  to  stand  until  ready  for 
use. 

A  compost  heap  is  about  the  same  as  a  manure  heap,  except 
that  it  contains  all  kinds  of  trash  that  will  rot.  Dead  leaves, 
straw,  dead  vines,  manure  from  the  stables,  and  decaying 
vegetables  are  all  dumped  together  in  a  convenient  place  and 
frequently  forked  over,  or  if  the  hogs  have  an  opportunity 
they  will  usually  keep  the  pile  pretty  well  worked  over.  It  is 
a  good  idea  to  make  a  foundation  for  the  manure  heap  and 
compost  heap  out  of  blocks  of  sod.  The  pieces  of  sod  will 
catch  and  hold  the  drainage  water  from  the  heap. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
RAISING  PLANTS 

Usually  the  farmer  buys  such  plants  as  he  cannot  raise 
early  enough  from  seed  sown  in  the  prepared  ground.  Early 
cabbage  and  tomato  plants  are  usually  bought  from  market 
gardeners.  Where  one  wishes  to  produce  his  own  plants, 
hot-beds  and  cold  frames  are  necessary. 

A  hot-bed  is  a  box-like  affair  containing  a  good  deal  of  ma- 
nure in  the  bottom,  over  which  is  a  layer  of  earth.  The  top 
is  covered  with  window  sash  to  let  in  the  sun  and  keep  out 
cold.  The  hot-bed  can  be  of  any  convenient  size.  It  is  usually 
four  to  six  feet  wide,  according  to  the  length  of  the  sash  to  be 
used  for  covering.  Planks  two  inches  thick  and  twelve  inches 
or  more  wide  are  used  for  the  back,  which  should  be  toward 
the  north.  The  plank  for  the  front  should  be  half  as  wide  as 
the  back  plank.  This  permits  the  sash  to  slope  to  the  south 
and  catch  the  sun.  The  planks  that,  close  the  ends  will  have 
to  be  cut  sloping  from  the  back  to  the  front.  The  planks  are 
held  in  place  by  strong  stakes  and  by  nailing  the  ends.  The 
soil  on  the  inside  can  be  dug  out  and  used  to  bank  up  against 
the  planks  on  the  outside.    This  helps  to  keep  it  warm  inside. 

Fresh  manure  from  the  horse  stables  is  used  to  fill  in  the 
bottom  of  the  hot-bed.  It  is  made  a  foot  or  more  deep, 
according  to  the  time  of  the  year;  if  in  early  March  it  may  be 
twenty  inches  or  more  deep.    Before  putting  the  manure  into 

169 


170 


AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 


the  hot-bed  it  should  be  gathered  into  a  heap  and  started  to 
heating  and  stirred  once  or  twice.  It  should  be  very  finely 
broken  up.  The  manure  should  be  very  evenly  spread  over 
the  bottom  and  tramped  solid.  Over  the  manure  are  placed 
six  or  eight  inches  of  rich  soil.  This  soil  will  usually  have  to 
be  prepared  and  stored  in  the  autumn,  as  the  ground  is  likely 


30.    HOT-BEDS    USED    FOR    STARTING    EARLY    PLANTS 
By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station 


to  be  frozen  or  too  wet  in  the  spring.  The  framework  should 
be  made  and  the  digging  out  of  the  box  ought  also  to  be  done 
in  the  autumn.  After  the  soil  is  put  on,  it  should  be  moistened 
and  allowed  to  stand  until  warmed  by  the  heating  of  the 
manure.  The  weed  seeds  in  the  soil  will  soon  germinate. 
After  they  have  been  destroyed  the  seed  for  the  garden  plants 
can  be  planted.    A  hot-bed  will  usually  give  off  heat  for  five 


RAISING  PLANTS  171 

or  six  weeks.  Some  attention  will  have  to  be  given  to  the 
matter  of  ventilating  the  hot-bed  by  raising  the  sash  a  little. 

A  cold-frame  is  made  almost  exactly  like  a  hot-bed,  except 
that  no  manure  for  heating  is  used.  The  only  heat  supplied  is 
that  from  the  sun  through  the  glass.  A  cold-frame  is  used 
usually  for  hardening  plants  that  have  been  grown  in  a  hot-bed. 
If  cabbage  and  tomato  plants  that  have  been  grown  in  a  hot- 
bed were  to  be  planted  out  in  the  open  garden  early  in  the 
spring  they  would  probably  die  because  of  the  great  change 
from  warm  to  cold,  but  if  they  are  transplanted  to  the  cold- 
frame  for  a  few  days  they  get  hardened,  so  that  they  will 
stand  a  good  deal  of  cold  without  injury.  Sometimes  cold- 
frames  are  used  for  growing  lettuce  and  other  plants  that  do 
not  need  much  warmth. 

The  greenhouse  is  really  only  a  collection  of  cold-frames 
and  hot-beds.  The  heat  is  furnished  from  a  furnace  and 
a  special  glass  building  is  constructed  to  let  in  the  sunlight. 
Only  gardeners  who  supply  large  markets  and  who  grow 
vegetables  for  winter  market  can  afford  the  expense  of  a 
greenhouse. 

Transplanting. — The  young  plants  of  cabbages,  tomatoes, 
and  many  other  vegetables  are  usually  started  in  the  green- 
house or  hot-bed,  and  when  the  weather  is  warm  enough  they 
are  set  out  in  the  garden  where  they  are  to  grow.  This-  reset- 
ting is  called  transplanting.  If  possible,  transplanting  should 
be  done  on  cloudy  days  or  during  damp  weather.  Where 
only  a  few  plants  are  to  be  moved,  they  can  usually  be  set  out 
in  the  evening  or  before  a  shower.  Plants  do  better  if  reset  in 
freshly  prepared  ground.  The  soil  should  be  pressed  down 
closely  around  the  roots,  and  the  surface  left  loose  to  act  as  a 
mulch.    Some  gardeners  pour  a  tinful  of  water  around  each 


172  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

plant  in  resetting,  but  this  is  hardly  necessary  if  the  plants 
are  set  in  moist  soil  and  the  earth  firmed*  around  the  roots. 

In  transplanting  it  is  a  good  idea  to  cut  off  part  of  the 
leaves  so  that  the  plant  will  not  wilt  so  much.  The  leaves  evap- 
orate moisture,  and  if  all  are  left  on  they  evaporate  more 
moisture  than  the  freshly  set  roots  can  supply,  and  as  a  result 
the  plant  wilts.  Clipping  the  ends  of  the  leaves  is  the  proper 
way  to  reduce  the  evaporating  surface.  If  the  weather  is 
warm  and  sunshiny  it  is  well  to  shade  the  plants  for  a  few 
days  with  a  shingle  or  some  kind  of  covering. 

Seed. — What  has  been  said  concerning  good  seed  under 
Farm  Crops  applies  equally  well  to  all  garden  seeds.  It  is, 
perhaps,  more  difficult  to  get  garden  seeds  true  to  name  than 
those  of  the  field  crops.  When  a  good  variety  has  been  found 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  save  some  of  the  very  best  plants  and  let 
them  produce  seed  for  the  next  year's  vegetables. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
SOME  OF  THE  COMMON  VEGETABLES 

Many  garden  plants  which  are  raised  in  gardens  and  truck 
patches  are  also  raised  on  a  larger  scale  in  fields  as  field  crops. 
Beets,  carrots,  parsnips,  turnips,  potatoes,  onions,  sweet  pota- 
toes have  already  been  spoken  of  in  Chapter  XII.  The  same 
methods  of  handling  those  vegetables  in  the  field  apply  equally 
as  well  in  the  garden  and  truck  patch.  The  same  is  true  of 
other  roots,  like  radishes  and  salsify. 

Beans  should  not  be  planted  until  the  danger  from  frost  is 
past.  They  are  planted  about  an  inch  and  a  half  deep  in  rows 
as  far  apart  as  necessary  for  cultivation.  The  plants  may  be 
five  or  six  inches  apart  in  the  row.  If  they  are  to  be  used 
green  the  pods  should  be  picked  just  as  soon  as  large  enough, 
otherwise  they  will  begin  to  ripen  and  the  plant  will  stop 
bearing.  Varieties  which  are  used  green  in  the  pods  are  called 
string  beans,  wax  beans,  or  snap  beans.  Those  which  are 
used  ripe  and  shelled  are  called  shell  beans.  Some  varieties 
produce  long  vines  and  need  poles  to  climb  on,  but  most 
varieties  are  dwarf  and  grow  bushy  without  support. 

Peas  can  be  planted  in  spring  as  soon  as  the  ground  is 

dry  enough  to  work.    For  a  succession  of  crops  they  can  be 

planted  every  two  weeks  until  the  first  of  June.     Peas  are 

used  green  almost  entirely,  the  green  peas  being  shelled  out 

of  the  pods.    As  with  beans,  some  varieties  grow  tall  and  need 

173 


174  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

supports,  while  others  are  dwarf.  For  support,  brush  two 
or  three  feet  long  can  be  stuck  into  the  ground,  or  chicken 
wire  fastened  to  posts  may  be  used. 

Cahhage-like  Plants. — There  are  a  number  of  vegetables 
closely  related  to  and  resembling  cabbage  which  are  raised 
in  gardens  for  home  or  market  purposes.  Among  these  we 
have  cabbage,  cauliflower,  broccoli,  Brussels  sprouts,  kale, 
and  kohl-rabi.  All  of  these  are  much  alike  in  the  matter  of 
raising.  Early  plants  are  started  in  hot-beds  or  greenhouses 
and  then  transplanted.  For  late  plants  the  seed  may  be  sown 
in  the  open,  but  it  is  always  best  to  transplant. 

The  cauliflower  is  much  like  cabbage,  and  as  soon  as  it  be- 
gins to  head  the  outer  leaves  should  be  tied  up  together  over 
the  centre  to  keep  the  sun  out.  Broccoli  is  much  like  cauli- 
flower. Brussels  sprouts  has  leaves  like  cabbage,  but  instead 
of  one  large  head,  at  the  base  of  each  leaf  there  is  a  small  head 
about  two  inches  in  diameter.  This  is  the  part  used  and  it 
is  best  in  the  autumn,  usually  after  being  frosted.  Kale  is 
used  somewhat  like  lettuce  or  "greens."  It  is  also  used  late 
in  autumn.  The  kohl-rabi  looks  like  a  turnip  with  cabbage 
leaves  growing  out  all  over  it.  It  is  cooked  and  used  like 
turnips.  The  seed  is  usually  sown  where  the  plants  are  to 
grow  and  no  transplanting  is  done. 

The  Potato  Family. — There  are  a  number  of  garden  plants 
related  to  the  potato,  such  as  the  tomato,  pepper,  and  egg- 
plant. These  plants  all  had  their  origin  in  a  warm  climate 
and  cannot  be  planted  in  the  open  until  the  danger  of  frost  is 
past,  and  they  are  killed  down  by  the  first  frost  in  the  autumn. 
To  get  an  early  start,  young  plants  should  be  grown  from  seed 
in  the  hot-bed  or  in  boxes  in  the  house,  and  hardened  in  the 
cold-frame  or  exposed  in  the  open  to  sunlight  some  days  be- 


SOME   OF  THE   COMMON   VEGETABLES  175 

fore  planting.  Tomatoes  need  to  be  supported  by  being  tied 
to  stakes  or  trellises.  Tomatoes  need  a  great  deal  of  room 
and,  if  possible,  ought  to  be  set  three  feet  apart  each  way. 

Tomatoes  are  frequently  raised  as  a  field  crop  for  sale  to 
canneries.  For  such  purpose  a  clover  sod  on  loam  soil  fur- 
nishes one  of  the  best  conditions  for  success.  It  should  be 
plowed  rather  early  and  frequently  harrowed  until  time  to 
set  the  plants.  In  the  latitude  of  Indiana  the  plants  are  set 
out  about  June  first.  The  plants  are  placed  about  four  feet 
apart  each  way  and  are  usually  set  by  hand.  They  are  culti- 
vated frequently,  the  same  as  corn.  When  raised  under  field 
conditions,  no  supports  are  given  to  the  vines.  The  plants 
will  begin  to  produce  ripe  tomatoes  about  the  middle  of 
August  and  continue  until  frost  kills  them. 

The  Gourd  Family. — The  gourd  family  has  a  number  of 
plants  which  are  very  useful  as  vegetables.  Of  these  we 
may  mention  squash,  pumpkin,  muskmelon,  watermelon, 
and  cucumber.  All  of  these  have  come  from  warm  climates, 
— the  pumpkin  and  squash  from  several  sources,  the  musk- 
melon from  Asia,  the  watermelon  from  Africa,  and  the  cu- 
cumber from  the  East  Indies. 

The  squash  and  pumpkin  grow  best  on  good  loam  soil. 
They  should  be  planted  six  or  eight  feet  apart  when  planted 
alone.  Many  farmers  plant  squash  and  pumpkin  seeds  with 
their  corn.  The  vines  do  not  grow  much  until  after  corn  cul- 
tivation is  over.  Then  they  grow  rapidly  and  sometimes  pro- 
duce a  large  number  of  squashes  and  pumpkins.  However, 
the  best  yields  are  obtained  when  they  are  planted  alone. 
They  should  not  be  planted  until  the  weather  is  quite  warm. 
Where  extra  early  squashes  are  wanted,  the  plants  are  started 
in  hot-beds  and  cold-frames  and  then  transplanted. 


176  AGRICULTURE   FOR   COMMON   SCHOOLS 

There  are  many  varieties  of  squash;  some  are  known  as 
summer  squash,  others  as  winter  squash.  There  are  two 
classes  of  pumpkins;  one  kind,  used  largely  for  feeding  live 
stock,  is  sometimes  called  "cow  pumpkin,"  but  is  also  much 
used  for  pies.    The  other  class  is  known  as  "sweet  pump- 


31.     A   BASKET   OF   CHOICE   MUSKMELONS   RAISED    IN 
SOUTHERN   INDIANA 

Notice  the  finely-netted  rinds 
By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station 

kin  "  and  is  used  almost  entirely  for  pies.  It  is  not  so  largely 
grown  as  the  first  class. 

Pumpkins  and  squashes  can  be  kept  quite  late  into  the 
winter,  if  they  are  pulled  before  heavy  frosts  and  set  away  in 
a  cool,  dry  cellar  or  room.  Pumpkins  are  often  kept  in  the 
oats  bin,  or  covered  with  corn  fodder  or  hay  in  the  barn. 

The  muskmelon  grows  best  in  a  sandy  soil  which  has  been 


SOME   OF  THE   COMMON   VEGETABLES  177 

well  manured.  The  plants  should  be  set  four  to  six  feet  apart, 
with  a  shovelful  of  well  rotted  manure  mixed  with  the  soil  of 
each  hill.  When  the  vines  have  grown  several  feet  the  ends 
may  be  pinched  off.  This  will  cause  the  young  melons  to 
develop  better.  Those  varieties  are  best  which  have  the  rind 
finely  netted.  The  melons  are  not  ripe  until  they  part  from 
the  stem  easily. 

Watermelons  are  raised  much  like  muskmelons.  The 
hills  should  be  about  eight  feet  apart  and  the  vines  are  usually 
not  pinched  back.  They  need  good  warm  soil.  The  grower 
tells  a  ripe  melon  by  thumping  it  with  his  finger.  One  has  to 
have  much  practice  before  he  can  tell  a  ripe  watermelon 
without  "plugging"  it. 

Cucumbers  require  a  loam  soil  with  considerable  moisture. 
The  plants  should  stand  in  hills  about  five  or  six  feet  apart. 
About  three  plants  may  be  allowed  to  a  hill.  It  is  well  to  plant 
more  seeds  than  one  expects  to  mature  into  plants.  Some 
plants  will  be  puny  and  should  be  pulled  out,  and  the  insects 
will  destroy  others.  This  is  also  true  of  the  melons,  squashes, 
and  pumpkins.  Early  plants  can  be  started  in  hot-beds  and 
cold-frames. 

Cucumbers  are  used  in  two  ways;  namely,  for  slicing  and 
for  pickles.  When  used  for  slicing  they  are  allowed  to  grow 
full  size,  but  are  picked  while  still  green.  For  pickles  they 
are  picked  at  various  sizes,  according  to  the  desire  of  the 
grower  or  customer,  usually  from  two  to  three  inches  in 
length.  No  cucumbers  should  be  allowed  to  go  to  seed  or  the 
vine  will  stop  bearing.  When  the  green  cucumbers  are  kept 
picked  off,  the  vines  continue  bearing  until  killed  by  the  frost. 
Seed  is  obtained  by  letting  some  of  the  choicest  cucumbers 
ripen  on  the  vine. 


178  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

There  are  a  number  of  vegetables  which  are  called  salad 
plants.  A  salad  plant  is  one  the  leaves  of  which  are  used 
green  on  the  table,  usually  with  a  dressing  of  some  kind  over 
them.  The  leaves  of  some  plants  are  wilted  or  cooked  before 
serving;  then  they  become  pot-herbs.  Pot-herbs  are  often 
called  "greens." 

Lettuce  is  our  most  common  salad  plant.  It  is  grown  very 
extensively  in  greenhouses  for  winter  market.  The  seed  is 
sown  in  small  boxes  and  the  young  plants  transplanted  about 
twelve  inches  apart  in  beds.  For  early  spring  use,  plants  are 
started  in  boxes,  hardened  in  cold-frames,  and  transplanted  to 
the  open.  For  family  use  most  farmers  sow  broadcast  a  small 
bed  in  the  open,  as  early  in  spring  as  possible.  It  is  usually 
grown  without  cultivation,  but  if  the  plants  are  transplanted 
to  rows  twelve  inches  apart  and  cultivated,  the  heads  are 
much  nicer. 

Other  salad  plants  are  cress,  endive,  chicory,  and  parsley. 
Some  of  the  common  pot-herbs  are  Swiss  chard — a  kind  of 
beet,  mustard,  spinach,  dandelion,  and  sour  dock.  The  last 
two  are  usually  not  cultivated,  but  gathered  from  waste 
places  where  they  grow  in  abundance.  The  package  in  which 
the  seed  is  purchased  usually  gives  directions  for  the  culti- 
vation of  any  of  the  above. 

Sweet  Corn  when  grown  for  table  use  or  for  canneries  is  to 
be  considered  a  vegetable.  Its  cultivation  does  not  differ 
from  that  of  field  corn  already  described,  except  that  more 
stalks  are  allowed  to  grow  in  a  hill.  Planting  may  be  made 
at  intervals  as  late  as  July  in  order  to  furnish  a  succession  of 
crops.  Early  Minnesota  and  Crosby  Early  are  good  early 
varieties,  while  StowelFs  Evergreen  and  Country  Gentleman 
are  standard  late  sorts.    To  keep  the  seed  of  sweet  corn  re- 


SOME   OF  THE   COMMON   VEGETABLES  179 

quires  extra  care.  When  the  ears  have  ripened  as  much  as 
they  will  on  the  stalk,  bunches  of  three  or  four  ears  can  be 
hung  up  in  airy  rooms  to  dry  out  further.  They  should  be 
protected  from  a  temperature  much  below  freezing. 

Asparagus  is  a  native  of  Europe.  It  is  very  hardy  and 
when  once  set  it  will  produce  a  crop  for  many  years.  It  will 
grow  on  any  good  soil  not  too  wet.  Manuring  with  well- 
rotted  manure  will  pay  well.  The  plants  may  be  raised  from 
seed  sown  in  spring,  but  it  is  a  saving  of  time  to  buy  roots 
already  started.  The  plants  should  be  set  about  six  inches 
deep  and  three  or  more  feet  apart.  Transplanting  should  be 
done  during  the  spring  months.  In  the  autumn  the  canes 
can  be  cut  down  and  the  land  worked  over  three  or  four 
inches  deep.  It  can  be  cultivated  again  in  the  spring.  No 
shoots  should  be  cut  until  the  second  spring  after  setting,  and 
it  is  better  to  wait  until  the  third.  Shoots  are  cut  when  they 
are  about  four  to  six  inches  above  ground  and  they  are  usually 
cut  about  two  inches  below  the  surface.  Care  must  be  taken 
not  to  cut  off  shoots  which  have  not  come  through  the  ground. 
Cuttings  may  be  made  every  few  days  until  the  middle  of 
June.  After  cutting  has  stopped,  the  ground  should  be  culti- 
vated without  regard  to  the  rows  and  a  good  coat  of  rotted 
manure  worked  in.  This  puts  the  bed  in  shape  for  next 
spring,  except  that  all  old  canes  should  be  cut  down  and  re- 
moved late  in  the  autumn. 

Celery  is  a  European  plant  which  has  been  introduced 
into  this  country  and  is  raised  for  its  leaf  stems.  The  seed  is 
sown  in  spring  in  small  boxes.  When  the  plants  are  a  couple 
of  inches  high  they  are  transplanted  to  larger  boxes  and  set 
about  two  inches  apart.  They  are  set  in  the  field  about  June, 
in  rows  three  feet  apart,  and  six  inches  apart  in  the  row.    For 


180  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

family  use  they  may  be  set  closer.  To  get  the  stems  bleached 
white  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  leaves  upright  and  banked 
up  with  soil.  Some  varieties  are  self -bleaching  without  being 
banked  up,  but  their  flavor  is  improved  by  banking  up. 

Celery  is  stored  for  winter  use  or  market  by  packing  up- 
right in  boxes  in  which  there  are  a  few  inches  of  moist  sand 
on  the  bottom  for  the  roots  to  stand  in. 

Celeriac  is  a  kind  of  celery  which  produces  an  enlargement 
at  the  base  of  the  plants  like  a  turnip.    This  is  the  part  eaten. 

Rhubarb  is  probably  a  native  of  Asia.  It  may  be  grown 
from  seed,  but  it  is  a  saving  of  time  to  get  roots  already 
started.  There  should  be  one  or  more  good  buds  to  each  root. 
These  are  set  in  the  autumn  in  soil  made  rich  with  well-rotted 
manure  or  compost.  There  is  no  danger  of  getting  the  soil 
too  rich.  Plants  should  be  set  about  three  or  four  feet  apart. 
The  third  spring  the  plants  will  come  into  full  bearing  and 
as  many  leaf -stalks  can  be  pulled  as  desired.  The  seed 
stems  should  be  kept  cut  down.  After  the  ground  has  fro- 
zen a  covering  of  manure  should  be  put  over  the  plants.  In 
the  spring  this  can  be  worked  into  the  ground  or  left  for  a 
mulch. 


CHAPTER  XXV 
HI.  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

By  landscape  gardening  is  meant  the  preparing,  laying  out, 
and  planting  of  ornamental  trees,  shrubs,  and  flowers  in 
parks,  cemeteries,  public  squares,  school  grounds,  lawns,  and 
dooryards.  What  we  shall  say  here  will  have  special  refer- 
ence to  lawns  and  dooryards. 

The  farmer  and  the  villager  very  often  neglect  the  planting 
of  trees,  shrubs,  and  flowers,  considering  it  a  thing  not  worth 
while,  yet  every  one  is  delighted  with  a  house  surrounded 
by  trees,  vines,  bushes,  and  flowers  properly  arranged.  Many 
lawns  are  not  pleasing  because  the  planting  has  been  done 
without  any  thought  of  its  effect. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  in  decorating  grounds  is  to  pre- 
pare the  soil  for  the  lawn  and  the  things  that  are  to  be  planted. 
In  the  first  place  it  should  be  drained.  Unless  the  subsoil  is 
sandy  or  gravelly,  under-drainage  is  very  desirable  for  the 
reasons  mentioned  in  Chapter  V.  The  land  should  be  deeply 
plowed  and  heavily  manured.  It  is  important  to  have  plenty 
of  humus  in  the  soil.  Professor  Troop,  of  Purdue  University, 
gives  the  following  instructions  for  the  making  of  a  lawn: 
**Have  deep,  rich  soil,  thoroughly  plowed  and  subsoiled, 
at  least  fifteen  inches  deep.  Harrow  down  and  replow 
across  the  first  plowing.  Harrow  down  again  and  plow 
once  more  and  level  off.     Such  preparation  will  give  an 

181 


182 


AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 


even  surface  when  the  land  settles.  Mix  two  bushels  of  blue 
grass  seed  and  one  bushel  of  red  top  together  and  sow  at  the 
rate  of  three  to  four  bushels  per  acre.  Sow  by  hand  and  rake 
in  with  a  rake.  Mow  early  and  often,  at  least  once  a  week. 
Top-dress  late  in  fall  with  good  well-rotted  manure,  or  com- 
mercial fertilizers." 

When  the  lawn  has  been  started  attention  can  be  given  to 


AN  ATTRACTIVE    COUNTRY   RESIDENCE 


Many  homes  could  be  made  attractive  by  the  planting  of  flowers, 
shrubs,  and  trees 

the  laying  out  of  the  grounds.  Walks  and  driveways  should 
be  first  laid  out.  For  small  yards  there  should  be  no  drive- 
way, unless  absolutely  necessary.  Better  to  be  slightly  incon- 
venienced than  to  have  a  driveway  used  only  seldom.  There 
should  be  as  few  walks  as  possible  and  they  should  not  have 
needless  curves  in  them.  If  fences  are  necessary  they  should 
be  inconspicuous. 

When  planning  for  the  planting  of  the  trees  and  shrubbery, 


LANDSCAPE   GARDENING  183 

bear  in  mind  that  the  house  is  the  centre  of  the  landscape 
and  that  the  view  to  or  from  it  should  be  obstructed  as  little 
as  possible.  It  is  desirable  to  have  the  lawn  directly  in  front 
of  the  house  perfectly  open,  except  for  a  flower  bed  or  two 
of  low-growing  plants.  Trees,  shrubs,  and  tall-growing  flow- 
ers are  to  be  planted  to  the  side  and  back  of  the  lawn.  Un- 
desirable views  are  to  be  hidden  by  clumps  of  shrubbery. 
The  driveway  and  fence  should  be  hidden  by  vines  and 
tall-growing  flowers.  Attractive  views  in  the  neighborhood 
are  to  be  made  as  available  as  possible. 

In  planting  it  is  desirable  to  mass  plants  together  rather 
than  to  have  them  standing  singly.  Many  kinds  together 
give  variety  and  a  pleasing  appearance.  The  appear- 
ance is  improved  if  they  are  set  rather  hap-hazard.  They 
then  appear  to  have  grown  up  naturally.  Professor  Bailey  of 
Cornell  University,  says:  "When  planting,  do  not  aim  at 
designs  or  effects;  just  have  lots  of  flowers,  a  variety  of  them, 
growing  luxuriantly,  as  if  they  could  not  help  it."  *  For  small 
grounds  very  few  trees  should  be  used  and  these  should  be  so 
placed  as  to  be  of  most  service  as  shade  and  not  hinder  views. 
Evergreens  should  be  set  so  as  to  screen  undesired  views. 
Their  lower  limbs  should  never  be  pruned,  nor  should  they 
be  sheared  into  fanciful  forms,  if  a  natural  landscape  is  de- 
sired. Shrubs  and  vines  are  used  as  backgrounds  for  low- 
growing  flowers.  A  large  shrub  or  rose  bush  at  the  corner  of 
the  house  has  a  good  effect.  The  lawn  should  not  be  cut  up 
by  numerous  flower  beds.  Unless  it  is  quite  large  one  or  two 
beds  carefully  placed  is  all  that  will  look  well  in  a  lawn.  It  is 
better  to  plant  flowers  along  the  edge  of  the  shrubbery, 
around  the  house,  and  bordering  the  driveway  and  fences. 
*  Garden  Making. 


184  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

Artificial  mounds  in  the  lawn  are  seldom  artistic.  If  borders 
are  planted  so  as  to  bulge  out  at  one  place  and  to  dip  in  at 
another  with  irregular  or  ragged  edges  they  will  have  the 
effect  of  making  the  grounds  seem  larger. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
PLANTS  THAT  MAY  BE  USED 

There  are  many  plants  that  are  useful  for  decorative  pur- 
poses. One  should  choose  such  as  are  easily  obtained  and 
inexpensive.  Oddities  are  usually  out  of  place  in  small 
grounds.  The  forest,  thicket,  river  and  creek  bank,  old  fence 
rows,  and  other  neglected  places  will  furnish  the  best  trees, 
shrubs,  and  wild  flowers.  One  can  well  take  a  lesson  from 
Nature's  method  of  planting  and  beautifying  landscapes. 
Wild  plants  should  usually  be  moved  in  the  autumn.  Seeds 
of  wild  flowers  can  be  sown  in  the  autumn  or  during  the  winter. 

Of  the  trees,  the  common  forest  trees  are  quite  appropriate 
and,  as  a  rule,  are  easily  transplanted.  For  small  grounds 
those  which  grow  slowly  and  do  not  grow  too  tall  are  best. 
Elm,  sugar,  and  soft  maples,  oaks,  bass-wood,  ash,  coffee  nut, 
birch,  buckeye,  and  many  others  may  be  used.  The  Norway 
maple,  cut-leaved  weeping  maple,  cut-leaved  weeping  birch, 
and  Kilmarnock  weeping  willow  may  be  obtained  from  nur- 
series. Arbor  vitae,  the  spruces  and  pines,  cedar,  fir,  and 
juniper  are  evergreens  that  grow  easily  and  are  quite  effective 
as  screens.     Evergreens  in  large  numbers  should  not  be  used. 

Of  the  shrubs  that  may  be  used  the  following  are  some  of 

the  best:  the  wild  thorn  or  red  haw,  red  bud,  wild  crab-apple, 

iron-wood,  wild  rose,  and  wild  laurel.     From  the  nurseries 

the  following  may  be  obtained:  lilac,  snowball,  spirea,  rose, 

barberry,  and  fragrant  currant.    Clematis,  grape,  trumpet- 

185 


186  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

creeper,  Virginia  creeper,  honeysuckle,  wistaria,  hop,  scarlet 
runner,  and  others  are  good  vines  for  covering  fences,  porches, 
and  outbuildings.  Wild  flowers  like  the  golden-rod,  aster, 
sunflower,  and  flag  look  well  when  planted  along  the  edges 
and  among  shrubs  from  the  forest. 

There  are  many  cultivated  flowers  that  can  be  used  for 
flower  beds  and  borders.  Some  of  these  require  special 
preparation  of  the  soil,  but  for  most  of  them  it  is  necessary 
only  that  the  soil  be  rich  and  deeply  prepared  and  that  the 
roots  or  seeds  be  properly  planted.  We  may  divide  these 
plants  into  those  which  grow  from  bulbs  or  tubers  and  those 
which  come  from  seeds.  The  bulbs  and  tubers  are  of  two 
kinds:   those  planted  in  autumn  and  those  planted  in  spring. 

The  common  fall-planted  bulbs  are  tulip,  crocus,  jonquil, 
daffodil,  hyacinth,  lily,  and  lily-of-the-valley.  There  are 
many  varieties  of  most  of  these  and  one  can  choose  what 
pleases  the  fancy  and  will  suit  the  conditions.  There  are 
said  to  be  over  two  hundred  varieties  of  hyacinths  alone. 
Crocuses  are  frequently  planted  in  the  grass  in  the  lawn,  mak- 
ing a  beautiful  sight  when  they  bloom  early  in  the  spring. 
Crocuses,  daffodils,  and  jonquils  should  be  planted  in  Sep- 
tember or  early  October;  the  others  may  be  planted  in  Octo- 
ber and  early  November.  Crocuses  and  tulips  should  be 
covered  about  three  inches  deep,  jonquils  and  hyacinths  about 
four  or  five  inches,  and  daffodils  and  lilies  about  six  inches. 
It  is  well  to  cover  most  of  them  with  a  light  covering  of  manure 
or  straw  after  the  ground  freezes  and  remove  it  early  in  spring. 

The  lilies  and  lilies-of-the-valley  may  remain  where  they  are 
set  for  several  years,  but  hyacinths  and  tulips  are  better  taken 
up  each  year  and  reset.  The  crocuses  may  stand  two  years 
or  longer.    The  daffodils  and  jonquils  are  best  reset  about 


PLANTS   THAT  MAY   BE   USED  187 

every  four  years.  All  of  these  flowers  increase  by  producing 
new  bulbs  around  the  old  ones,  and  if  they  were  not  reset 
they  would  soon  become  so  crowded  as  not  to  flower  well. 
The  lifting  of  the  roots  is  done  after  the  plants  are  through 
flowering  and  the  leaves  have  begun  to  turn  yellow. 

The  dahlia  and  gladiolus  are  the  common  spring-planted 
roots.  The  dahlia  may  be  started  in  boxes  before  time  to  set 
out  in  the  open.  Usually  the  cluster  of  tubers  is  divided  and 
a  single  tuber  with  a  bud  is  set  by  itself.  Barely  moist  earth 
and  a  rather  low  temperature  are  best  for  starting  sturdy 
plants.  After  danger  of  frost  is  past  the  plants  may  be  set 
out  in  the  beds  where  they  are  to  grow.  They  will  grow  rap- 
idly and  bloom  early.  Roots  which  have  not  been  started 
may  be  set  out  for  late  blooming  as  soon  as  danger  of  frost  is 
past.  The  roots  may  stay  in  the  ground  in  the  autumn  till 
after  frost  has  killed  the  tops.  They  should  be  dug  before 
the  ground  freezes,  the  moisture  dried  off,  and  stored  in  a  cool, 
dry  place. 

Gladiolus  grows  best  in  sandy  loam  soil,  but  can  be  pro- 
duced satisfactorily  under  almost  any  conditions.  The  bulb 
of  gladiolus  is  not  a  true  bulb,  but  is  what  is  called  a  corm. 
It  differs  from  a  bulb  in  not  being  made  up  of  layers.  These 
corms  are  planted  about  two  or  three  inches  deep.  The 
planting  may  begin  early  in  spring  and  be  continued  at  inter- 
vals until  the  last  of  June.  This  will  give  a  succession  of 
blossoms.  The  gladiolus  increases  by  means  of  small  corms 
formed  at  the  base  of  the  old  one.  These  little  corms  should 
be  saved  and  planted  the  next  spring.  In  two  years  they  will 
produce  flowers.  The  gladiolus  corms  are  lifted  in  the  autumn, 
after  frosts  have  killed  the  tops,  and  are  stored  away  in  a 
cool,  dry  cellar. 


188  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

Besides  these  cultivated  tubers  and  bulbs  there  are  many 
wild  flowers  that  grow  from  under-ground  parts  which  can 
be  easily  transplanted  to  the  borders  and  flower  beds.  Most 
of  them  like  shade  and  a  soil  rich  in  rotten  leaves.  One  should 
study  their  native  homes  and  try  to  give  them  somewhat  the 
same  conditions  in  the  lawn.  Some  of  the  more  common  of 
these  plants  are  spring  beauty,  trilliums,  bloodroot,  dog- 
tooth violet  or  adder's-tongue,  lilies,  and  wild  flags.  The  last 
should  be  planted  in  wet  places  by  the  well  or  cistern. 

The  list  of  flowers  that  may  be  produced  from  seeds  sown 
in  the  spring  or  autumn  is  very  long.  A  few  of  the  common 
ones  are  aster,  zinnia,  marigold,  holly-hock,  larkspur,  touch- 
me-not,  pansy,  sweet  pea,  sweet-william,  verbena,  four 
o'clock,  phlox,  salvia,  nasturtium,  and  pink.  Directions  for 
growing  these  plants  are  usually  given  on  the  package  in 
which  the  seed  is  purchased.  The  only  direction  necessary  is 
to  have  rich  soil  well  prepared  and  a  little  attention  given  not 
to  crowd  slow-growing,  tender  sorts  with  rapid-growing, 
sturdy  ones. 

There  are  also  a  number  of  hardy  plants  which,  when  once 
set,  bloom  from  year  to  year  without  much  attention,  more 
than  working  in  some  rotted  manure  in  the  autumn  and  cov- 
ering them  with  a  light  covering  of  coarse  litter  for  winter 
protection.  Such  plants  are  peony,  bleeding-heart,  chrysan- 
themum, and  columbine. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 
INSECTS— INJURIOUS  AND  BENEFICIAL 

Much  damage  is  done  our  field,  garden,  and  orchard  crops 
every  year  by  insects.  It  is  estimated  that  more  than  three 
hundred  milHon  dollars'  worth  of  crops  is  destroyed  every 
year  by  them.  However,  we  must  not  condemn  all  insects, 
for  all  are  not  injurious.  Some  are  quite  useful  and  we  do 
ourselves  injury  when  we  kill  them. 

The  life  of  an  insect  is  very  interesting  and  may  be  divided 
into  four  stages.  The  first  is  the  egg  state.  Every  insect  is 
developed  from  an  agg;  though  under  certain  conditions 
plant-lice  and  some  scale  insects  are  born  alive.  The  second 
stage  is  the  larval  or  worm  stage.  After  the  egg  hatches,  the 
insect  exists  for  some  time  as  a  worm,  eating  the  foliage  or 
roots  or  sucking  the  juices  of  the  plant.  During  the  time  that 
it  is  a  worm,  the  insect  grows  larger  and  larger,  and  to  accom- 
modate its  increased  size  it  changes  its  skin  one  or  more 
times.  The  third  stage  is  the  resting  stage.  This  is  also 
called  the  pupa  or  chrysalis  stage.  Some  insects  do  not  stay 
in  this  stage  very  long,  others  do  for  several  months.  Every 
one  has  seen  the  silken  cocoons  that  some  insects  weave 
around  themselves  when  they  go  into  the  resting  stage. 
Many  insects  do  not  make  a  cocoon,  but  their  skin  hardens 
and  they  rest  quietly  in  that  form  for  a  time.    When  the  insect 

comes  out  of  its  cocoon,  or  hard  case,  it  is  quite  different  in 

189 


190  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

appearance  from  the  worm  which  it  was  before.  It  may  be 
a  beetle,  a  fly,  a  honey-bee,  or  a  beautiful  butterfly.  This 
stage  is  called  the  odvlt  or  imago  stage.  Some  insects,  like  the 
grasshoppers  and  the  squash-bugs,  do  not  go  through  these 
four  changes  very  completely,  but  in  every  insect  the  four 
stages  are  more  or  less  clearly  marked.  Insects  usually  do 
the  most  harm  in  the  second,  or  larval,  stage  of  their  lives. 

There  are  thousands  of  kinds  of  insects.  The  farmer  and 
fruit-grower  is  interested  in  many  of  them,  for  some  injure  his 
crops,  while  others  are  useful  to  him.  We  can  mention  here 
only  a  few  which  must  serve  as  examples  for  all. 

1.  Plant-Lice. — These  are  to  be  found  on  all  kinds  of 
plants,  more  often  on  trees  and  bushes.  They  are  usually 
quite  small,  greenish-colored,  and  soft-bodied.  They  suck 
the  juices  of  plants.  The  leaves  wrinkle  or  curl  up  and  hide 
the  lice  inside.  Plant-lice  have  a  little  projection  on  the  back 
part  of  their  body  from  which  honeydew  is  exuded.  If  there 
are  ants  around  one  can  see  the  ant  go  up  to  the  louse  and 
stroke  it  on  the  back  with  its  antennae.  The  plant-louse  gives 
up  a  drop  of  honeydew  and  the  ant  eats  it.  For  such  accom- 
modation the  ants  care  for  some  kinds  of  plant-lice  by  taking 
them  into  the  ground  and  protecting  them  over  winter.  Plant- 
lice  on  the  roots  of  corn  are  placed  there  by  the  ants.  So  if 
there  are  many  ants  running  around  the  plants  of  corn  we  may 
be  sure  that  there  will  be  some  lice  on  the  corn  roots.  Plant- 
lice  usually  pass  the  winter  in  the  ^gg  stage  and  hatch  early 
in  spring,  and  there  are  several  broods  during  the  summer. 

2.  Scale  Insects. — ^There  are  many  kinds  of  these,  the 
worst  of  which  is  the  San  Jos^  scale.  Scale  insects  are  flat 
and  scale-like  in  appearance  and  are  usually  covered  with  a 
hard,  crust-like  covering.    They  are  nearly  always  found  on 


INSECTS — INJURIOUS   AND   BENEFICIAL  191 

trees  and  bushes.     In  color  they  are  sometimes  white,  but 

more  often  dark-colored  like  the  bark  on  which   they  rest. 

Like  the  plant-lice,  they  suck  the  juices  of  plants,  but  ants  do 

not  care  for  them. 

Some  kinds  pass 

the   winter    as 

adult  insects  and 

other  kinds  live 

through   in    the 

egg  stage. 

3.  Cutworms. 
— These  insects 
do  the  farmers 
and  gardeners 
much  damage 
every  year.  The 
damage  is  usual- 
ly greatest  on  sod 
land    plowed    in     ^^'    ^^^  ^^^^  scale  on  bark  (much  enlarged) 

Notice   the    peculiar  shell-like   covering    of    the   insect. 
the  Sprmg.       1  he    One  must  use  a  magnifying  glass  to  identify  the  scale 
By  courtesy  of  the  Ohio  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

cutworm    is  a 

dark-colored  worm,  usually  some  shade  of  gray,  with  faint 
stripes  running  lengthwise  of  the  body.  The  body  is  soft  and 
easily  crushed.  The  adult  form  of  the  cutworm  is  a  moth.  A 
moth  looks  like  a  butterfly,  but  it  is  not  so  brilliantly  colored 
and  flies  at  night  instead  of  by  day  as  the  butterflies  do. 
Moths  are  attracted  into  our  rooms  at  night  in  the  summer- 
time by  the  lights.  The  cutworm  moth  lays  its  eggs  on  the 
stems  and  blades  of  grass  or  clover  in  the  summer.  When  the 
eggs  hatch  the  larvae  go  to  the  roots  of  the  plant  and  become 
partly  grown  before  cold  weather.    They  remain  in  the  ground 


192  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

all  winter  and  in  spring  begin  to  eat  everything  within  reach. 
In  orchards  some  kinds  of  cutworms  crawl  up  the  trunks  of 
trees  and  cut  off  the  young  shoots.  The  cutworm  cuts  off  the 
corn  or  garden  plants  just  above  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
If  sod  is  plowed  early  in  the  fall  the  moths  have  to  find  other 
places  to  lay  their  eggs,  so  that  not  many  will  be  found  in  the 
field  next  spring.  Late  plowing  disturbs  the  winter  bed  of 
the  larvae  and  causes  many  to  be  killed  by  the  cold. 

4.  Hessian  Fly. — This  is  a  very  small  fly,  like  what  is 
usually  called  a  gnat.  The  eggs  are  laid  on  the  upper  surfaces 
of  the  lower  leaves  of  wheat  or  other  grass-like  plants.  As 
soon  as  hatched  the  larva  slips  down  inside  of  the  sheath  and 
begins  to  absorb  the  juice  of  the  plant.  The  larva  is  a  maggot 
and  cannot  chew  the  plant  but  absorbs  its  juices.  At  first  it 
is  white  but  when  it  is  full  grown  it  is  brown.  Eggs  are  laid 
in  the  fall  and  in  the  spring,  so  that  there  are  two  broods 
each  year.  Adult  flies  come  from  the  larvae  in  the  spring. 
These  at  once  lay  eggs  for  the  summer  brood  which  comes 
forth  late  in  the  summer,  ready  to  lay  eggs  on  the  fall-sown 
wheat. 

5.  Codling-Moth. — Thijs  moth  lays  the  egg  that  makes  the 
worm  which  we  find  in  apples  in  the  summer-time.  The  egg 
is  laid  at  the  blossom  end  of  the  apple  just  as  the  blossoms  drop 
off  in  spring.  The  egg  soon  hatches,  the  worm  eats  outside 
a  couple  of  days,  then  works  into  the  apple  and  eats  around 
the  core  until  it  is  full  grown.  It  then  comes  out  and  finds 
a  hiding-place  under  the  bark,  spins  a  cocoon,  and  rests  until 
next  spring  when  it  hatches  out  as  a  moth  again.  In  most 
places  there  are  two  broods.  The  first  larvae  change  to  moths 
early  in  summer,  and  these  moths  lay  eggs  on  the  green  apples, 
generally  where  two  apples  touch  each  other. 


INSECTS — INJURIOUS   AND   BENEFICIAL 


193 


6.  Plum  Curculio. — The  plum  curculio  is  a  beetle,  that  is, 
an  insect  with  a  set  of  shell-like  wings  covering  its  true  wings. 
The  curculio  head  and  mouth  parts  are  prolonged  into  a 
proboscis.  The  curculio  lays  its  eggs  on  plums,  cherries, 
peaches,  apricots,  pears,  and  apples.    The  beetle  itself  feeds 


34.       A    CURCULIO    CATCHER 

The  insects  are  jarred  on  to  the  sheet  and  then  swept  into  a  bucket  and  killed 

By  courtesy  of  the  New  York  {Cornell)  Experiment  Station 

on  the  foliage  of  these  trees,  and  when  the  fruit  is  about  the 
size  of  a  marble  it  makes  a  crescent-shaped  slit  in  the  skin, 
raises  the  flap,  and  puts  an  egg  under  it.  This  soon  hatches 
and  the  larva  bores  down  to  the  seed  of  the  fruit.  This 
causes  the  plums,  peaches,  apricots,  and  cherries  to  fall  off 
and  rot.  The  larva  develops  in  the  rotten  fruit,  comes  out 
and  hides  away  until  next  spring.  Those  in  the  apples  and 
pears  cannot  develop  unless  the  fruit  falls  off  from  some  other 
cause.   If  there  are  hogs  and  sheep  in  the  orchard  to  eat  up  the 


INSECTS — INJURIOUS   AND   BENEFICIAL  195 

fallen  fruit  most  of  the  insects  are  killed.  There  are  many 
kinds  of  curculio  which  attack  other  plants,  but  none  are  so 
injurious  as  the  plum  curculio.  Jarring  the  curculios  from 
the  tree  upon  sheets  very  early  in  the  morning  is  a  good  way 
to  keep  them  in  check.  Poultry  in  the  plum  orchard  will 
catch  many  of  them. 

7.  Borers. — There  are  many  species  of  insects  which  bore 
into  the  trunks  of  trees,  the  stems  of  bushes,  and  the  roots  of 
non-woody  plants.  Some  of  the  worst  of  these  are  the  peach- 
borer,  fruit-bark  beetle,  bill-bug,  blackberry  borer,  currant 
borer,  and  strawberry  root-borer.  In  most  cases  the  eggs 
are  laid  on  the  stem,  and  after  hatching  the  larvae  bore  into 
the  stem  or  under  the  bark,  causing  the  plant  to  wilt  and 
die. 

8.  Beetles. — Many  species  of  beetles  are  beneficial;  among 
theiii  are  most  of  the  black  beetles  which  run  about  on  the 
ground.  These  beetles  and  their  larvae  feed  on  cutworms  and 
other  larvae  which  injure  the  roots  of  plants.  The  lady-bird 
beetles  destroy  large  numbers  of  plant-lice.  They  are  small, 
hemispherical  beetles,  usually  some  shade  of  brown  in  color, 
with  spots  on  their  wing  covers.  The  larvae  of  the  lady-bird 
beetles  are  small,  ugly,  black,  spiny  worms,  but  they  destroy 
plant-lice. 

Among  the  injurious  beetles  are  the  'potato-beetles.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  these  which  do  the  most  damage.  One  is  the 
"Colorado  potato-bug,"  and  the  other  is  a  blister-beetle  usu- 
ally called  the  "old-fashioned  potato-bug."  The  eggs  of  the 
"Colorado  potato-bug"  are  laid  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf 
early  in  spring.  The  eggs  soon  hatch,  the  young  grow  vigor- 
ously and  are  soon  full  grown.  This  first  brood  now  lays  eggs 
for  a  second  brood  which  becomes  full  grown  and  passes  the 


196  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

winter  hidden  away  in  the  ground  or  under  trash  ready  for 
the  next  year's  potato  crop.  The  eggs  of  the  *' old-fashioned 
potato-bug"  are  laid  in  the  ground,  and  while  young  the 
larvse  feed  on  the  eggs  of  the  grasshopper,  which  are  laid  in 
the  ground  also.  These  larvae  do  not  become  adults  until  the 
second  year,  when,  as  adults,  they  do  much  damage  to  potato 
vines. 

Many  of  the  borers  are  beetles,  especially  those  that  work 
in  forest  trees.  One  of  the  most  troublesome  of  the  borers  is 
the  fruit-bark  beetle  which  makes  little  channels  in  the  sap 
wood  just  under  the  bark  of  fruit  trees.  The  rose-chafer  does 
great  damage  in  some  places  to  vineyards,  orchards,  and  gar- 
dens by  eating  the  blossoms.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  grass 
and  the  larvae  feed  on  the  roots  of  grass  and  other  plants.  In 
spring  the  adults  appear  and  attack  the  blossoms  of  any 
kind  of  fruit. 

One  other  beetle  which  we  must  mention  is  the  "May- 
beetle"  or  "June-bug"  or  "cock-chafer."  It  is  the  large 
beetle  which  flies  in  at  windows  and  doors  at  night  in  the 
spring.  There  are  several  species  of  these,  but  all  look  alike 
unless  one  is  making  a  careful  study.  The  eggs  are  laid  in 
grass-land  and  the  larvae  feed  on  the  grass  roots.  They  are 
what  we  call  "grub-worms,"  and  when  the  sod  is  put  to  corn 
they  often  do  much  damage  by  eating  the  roots.  Some  species 
live  in  the  ground  for  two  or  more  years  before  changing  to 
the  adult  stage.  The  adults  often  do  damage  by  eating  the 
foliage  of  trees  and  bushes. 

9.  Caterpillars. — There  are  several  familiar  examples  of 
these  insects.  One  is  the  tent-caterpillar,  which  spins  the 
large  white  web  so  often  seen  in  orchards  and  works  inside 
it;  another  is  the  fall  web-worm,  which  also  spins  a  web  and 


INSECTS — INJURIOUS   AND   BENEFICIAL  197 

works  inside  it,  but  which  does  not  become  noticeable  until 
the  summer  months;  still  another  is  the  yellow-necked  cater- 
pillar, which  feeds  on  the  apple  foliage.  There  are  other 
species,  much  like  the  yellow-neck,  which  feed  in  great  num- 
bers on  walnut,  hickory,  and  other  trees.  Finally,  there  is  the 
green  cabbage-worm.  The  adult  from  all  caterpillars  is 
either  a  moth  or  a  butterfly. 

The  eggs  of  the  tent-caterpillar  and  of  the  fall  web-worm 
are  laid  in  masses  on  the  trees.  The  larvae  feed  greedily  on 
the  leaves  and  when  full  grown  they  drop  to  the  ground  and 
change  to  the  chrysalis  form.  The  tent-caterpillar  changes 
to  the  adult  stage  before  cold  weather  and  lays  its  eggs  for 
next  year  in  a  compact  mass  completely  encircling  a  twig. 
The  second  brood  of  the  fall  web-worm  does  not  change  to 
the  adult  form  until  spring. 

The  yellow-necked  caterpillar  and  its  close  relatives  hatch 
from  eggs  laid  on  the  leaves.  The  young  feed  together 
until  they  are  nearly  grown,  when  they  begin  to  scatter  over 
the  tree.  They  change  to  the  pupa  stage  in  the  ground  and 
remain  there  until  spring.  One  can  see  the  moulting  habit 
in  this  insect  better  than  in  almost  any  other.  When  they  are 
ready  to  change  their  skins  they  travel  down  to  the  trunk  of 
the  tree  and  gather  in  a  large  mass.  In  about  a  day  they  slip 
out  of  the  old  skin  and  travel  back  to  their  feeding-place. 
However,  they  take  a  new  place  each  time.  They  shed 
their  skins  three  or  four  times,  each  time  leaving  the  mass  of 
empty  skins  hanging  on  the  body  of  the  tree. 

The  beautiful  white  butterfly  which  lays  the  eggs  for  the  cab- 
bage-worm is  known  by  every  one.  The  eggs  are  laid  singly 
on  the  under  side  of  the  cabbage  leaf.  When  the  larvae  are 
ready  to  pupate  they  enclose  themselves  in  a  papery  cocoon. 


198  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

fastened  under  the  weather-boarding  of  a  house  or  any  other 
projecting  ledge. 

10.  Chinch-Bug. — This  is  one  of  the  most  destructive  in- 
sects that  attacks  farm  crops.  It  is  a  true  bug.  All  true  hugs 
have  their  mouth  parts  prolonged  into  a  sharp  beak  with 
which  they  puncture  the  skin  or  bark  of  the  plant  and  suck 
the  juices  instead  of  chewing  the  foliage  or  stem.  The  chinch- 
bug  hibernates  over  winter,  hiding  anywhere  that  it  can  find 
protection  in  trash  or  stubble.  Early  in  spring  it  lays  its  eggs 
on  the  stems  or  roots  of  grass  or  wheat  near  the  surface.  By 
the  middle  of  summer  the  young  are  full  grown.  They  then 
begin  to  travel  from  one  field  to  another.  As  soon  as  wheat  is 
ripe  they  go  into  the  oats  or  corn.  They  are  difficult  to  con- 
trol. All  trash  should  be  cleaned  up  so  they  will  not  have 
good  places  to  hibernate.  When  they  begin  to  travel  a  trench 
made  around  the  field  into  which  they  are  moving  and  made 
dusty  by  dragging  a  log  in  it  will  hinder  them,  as  they  cannot 
climb  up  the  dusty  sides.  Straw  scattered  in  the  trench  and 
burned  will  kill  those  thus  trapped. 

11.  Parasitic  Insects. — By  parasitic  insects  are  meant 
those  insects  which  lay  their  eggs  in  the  bodies  of  other  insects. 
When  the  eggs  hatch  the  larvae  live  in  the  body  of  the  attacked 
insect  and  feed  upon  it.  By  the  time  the  larvae  are  full  grown 
the  insect  is  dead.  In  almost  every  case  the  parasitic  insects 
are  beneficial. 

One  of  these  parasitic  insects  attacks  the  tomato  and  to- 
bacco-worm. When  it  is  full  grown  it  spins  a  small  white 
cocoon  on  the  back  of  the  worm.  Every  one  has  seen  the 
large  tomato-worm  with  a  dozen  or  more  of  these  white  co- 
coons on  its  back.  The  Hessian  fly  is  also  attacked  by  an- 
other small  fly  which  destroys  it.    There  are  many  kinds  of 


INSECTS — INJURIOUS   AND   BENEFICIAL  199 

parasitic  insects  which  attack  many  other  kinds  of  insects. 
They  are  one  of  Nature's  means  for  holding  insect  pests  in 
check. 

There  are  a  few  parasites  which  are  decidedly  troublesome 
to  the  farmer.  These  are  the  lice  and  ticks  which  live  on  all 
kinds  of  live-stock  and  occasionally  even  on  man. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 
CONTROLLING  INSECTS 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  exterminate  completely  any  kind 
of  insect,  so  that  our  fight  against  them  must  be  with  the  in- 
tention of  holding  them  in  check.  There  are  four  principal 
methods  of  doing  this.  Two  of  them  are  Nature's  ways  and 
two  are  means  devised  by  man. 

L  Parasitic  Enemies. — As  was  just  mentioned  in  the  last 
chapter,  there  are  many  insects  which  get  all  their  subsistence 
from  other  insects.  It  is  often  noticed  that  the  Hessian  fly  is 
quite  troublesome  for  two  or  three  years  and  then  is  not  seen 
again  for  several  years.  This  is  due  to  the  attack  of  its  para- 
site which  increases  in  such  numbers  that  nearly  all  the  Hes- 
sian flies  are  killed.  Then  the  parasite,  having  nothing  to 
live  on,  dies  off  and  the  Hessian  fly  has  a  chance  to  increase 
again.  In  a  similar  way  many  other  insects  are  held  in 
check.  Besides  the  parasitic  insects  there  are  those  like  the 
lady-bird  beetle  and  many  others  which  attack  and  destroy 
destructive  insects. 

2.  Birds,  Snakes,  and  Toads. — Some  of  Nature's  most 
effective  agents  in  destroying  insects  are  not  fully  appreciated 
by  man.  Almost  every  kind  of  bird  destroys  some  insects, 
and  a  majority  of  our  land  birds  live  almost  entirely  on  in- 
sects, especially  during  the  growing  season.  Certainly  every 
one  has  seen  the  robins,  chipping  sparrows,  bluebirds,  black- 

200 


CONTROLLING  INSECTS 


201 


birds,  song-sparrows,  and  wrens  gathering  insects  for  their 
young.  The  woodpeckers,  nuthatches,  and  brown  creepers 
search  up  and  down  the  trees  for  the  eggs  and  young  of  in- 
sects destructive  to  trees  and  peck  holes  through  the  bark  to 
dig  out  borers.  The  vireos,  orioles,  and  warblers  search  the 
foliage  for  worms  and  destroy 
countless  numbers.  The  cuckoo, 
or  raincrow,  destroys  the  tents  of 
the  tent-caterpillar;  the  catbird, 
brown  thrasher,  and  thrushes  get 
insects  from  the  ground  and  from 
the  trees.  No  more  useful  insect- 
destroyers  are  to  be  found  than 
the  quail  and  the  meadow  lark, 
yet  farmers  often  allow  these 
birds  to  be  killed  by  sportsmen. 
It  would  take  an  entire  book 
alone  to  tell  all  the  useful  habits  of  our  common  birds.  Each 
needs  to  be  studied  carefully  and  protected. 

Snakes  are  unpleasant  animals,  but  nearly  all  of  them  are 
destroyers  of  large  numbers  of  insects.  The  garter-snakes 
and  blue  racers  are  most  common  and  most  effective.  How- 
ever, they  destroy  many  toads,  and  the  toad  is  probably  more 
effective  than  the  snake  and  much  more  pleasant. 

Toads  live  entirely  on  insects  and  catch  great  numbers  of 
them.  It  has  been  estimated  that  a  single  toad  is  worth  nearly 
twenty  dollars  a  season  in  a  field  or  garden.  It  is  said  that  Eng- 
lish gardeners  often  pay  twenty-five  dollars  a  hundred  for  toads 
to  put  into  their  gardens.*  They  will  eat  practically  any  kind 
of  insect.  They  are  said  to  be  a  sure  remedy  for  cockroaches. 
*  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  196. 


36.     A   PARASITIC   INSECT 

This  one  destroys  tree  borers 

By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana 

Expenment  Station 


202  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

Toads  lay  their  eggs  in  the  water  just  as  frogs  do.  Every 
one  should  become  interested  in  toads  and  protect  them. 
There  is  no  truth  in  the  statement  that  handling  toads  will 
produce  warts  on  the  hands. 

3.  Cultivation. — Cultivation  is  one  of  the  methods  that 
man  has  learned  to  use  for  combating  insects.  The  rotation 
of  crops,  as  mentioned  in  Chapter  XVI,  is  very  effective  in 
holding  in  check  certain.kinds  of  insects.  When  the  particular 
plant  upon  which  an  insect  feeds  is  not  planted  in  the  same 
field  each  year,  it  finds  it  difficult  to  travel  after  its  food  and 
often  perishes.  Farmers  who  practice  rotation  of  crops 
rarely  have  much  trouble  with  the  corn-root  louse,  Hessian 
fly,  chinch-bug,  and  many  other  insects.  One  of  the  best 
means  of  preventing  damage  from  the  Hessian  fly  is  to  sow  a 
narrow  strip  of  wheat  around  the  field  several  weeks  before 
the  main  crop  is  to  be  sowed.  The  fly  will  gather  in  this 
strip  and  lay  all  its  eggs  on  the  early  wheat.  Just  before 
sowing  the  main  crop  the  narrow  strip  should  be  plowed 
under  and  the  land  harrowed  down.  The  larvae  in  the  young 
wheat  are  not  old  enough  to  live  over  the  winter  without  more 
fresh  food,  and  so  all  perish. 

4.  Spraying. — In  spraying  plants  to  keep  off  insects  it 
should  always  be  kept  in  mind  that  some  insects  destroy  the 
plant  by  chewing  the  foliage  or  stem,  while  others  pierce  the 
skin  or  bark  with  their  sharp  mouth  parts  and  suck  out  the 
juices,  causing  the  plant  to  wilt  and  die.  For  those  insects 
which  chew  their  food  a  poison  is  applied  to  their  food,  but 
for  those  which  suck  the  juices  of  the  plants  such  application 
does  no  good,  and  the  remedy  applied  must  be  one  that  will 
kill  the  insect  by  contact.  In  the  first  class  we  have  all  the 
beetles,  caterpillars,  and  grasshoppers;   in  the  second,  the 


CONTROLLING  INSECTS 


203 


plant-lice,  scale  insects,  and  true  bugs,  like  the  chinch-bug 
and  squash-bug. 

There  are  two  ways  of  applying  poisons :  one  in  the  form 
of  a  fine  spray  of  water,  and  the  other  as  a  dust  of  dry  powder. 
For  trees  and 
bushes  and  for 
large  areas  the 
spray  is  always 
used.  We  cannot 
mention  all  the 
various  spra^ys 
used,  but  the  fol- 
lowing are  a  few 
of  the  common 
ones: 

1.  Paris  Green 
is  one  of  the  most 
widely  used  poi- 
sons.   It  is  used 

at  the  rate  of  one  pound  to  150  to  200  gallons  of  water,  or 
for  small  quantities  about  a  half-teaspoonful  to  a  gallon  of 
water.  It  should  be  thoroughly  stirred  before  using.  It  is 
well  to  add  a  little  lime,  as  lime  keeps  the  Paris  green  from 
burning  the  leaves  when  the  sun  is  hot.  Paris  green  will  kill 
all  insects  that  chew  the  foliage. 

2.  London  Purple  is  used  exactly  as  Paris  green.  It  gener- 
ally sticks  to  the  foliage  longer  than  Paris  green. 

3.  White  Hellebore  is  usually  dusted  on  to  kill  insects. 
When  used  as  a  spray  an  ounce  to  three  gallons  of  water  is 
about  right.  White  hellebore  is  used  mainly  for  currant- 
worms  on  currant  and  gooseberry  bushes. 


37a- 


RESULTS    OF    SPRAYING 


The  crop  of  one  tree.    The  large  pile  is  good  fruit ; 
the  small  pile  poor. 

By  courtesy  of  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station 


204 


AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 


4.  Pyrethrum  is  dusted  on  when  the  leaves  are  damp  or 
may  be  used  as  a  spray  at  the  rate  of  an  ounce  to  two  gallons 

of  water.    When 
not    in    use   the 


RESULTS    OF    NOT    SPKAYING 


powder  should 
be  kept  in  an  air- 
tight can.  This 
powder  will  kill 
currant  -  worms, 
cabbage  -  worms, 
and  many  others. 
5.  Whale  -  oil 
Soap  is  a  good 
remedy  for  San 
Jos^  and  other 
scales.  It  is  used 
at  the  rate  of  two 
pounds  of  soap 
to  one  gallon  of 
water.  The  soap 
should  be  thor- 
oughly dissolved 


The  crop  of  one  tree.    The  piles  of  good  and  poor  fruit 
are  about  equal  in  this  case. 

By  courtesy  of  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station 

and  applied  as  a  fine  spray.    It  kills  by  contact. 

6.  Kerosene  Emvlsion  is  widely  used  for  soft-bodied  insects 
like  plant-lice  and  many  kinds  of  scales,  as  well  as  hard- 
bodied  insects.  It  is  made  by  dissolving  a  half-pound  of  hard 
soap  in  one  gallon  of  water  (soft  water  is  best).  While  still 
hot,  two  gallons  of  kerosene  should  be  added  and  thoroughly 
churned  with  a  force-pump,  or  stirred  with  a  stick,  until  the 
mass  is  like  cream.  It  will  take  several  minutes  to  do  the 
mixing  right.     If  small  quantities  are  wanted   the  above 


CONTROLLING  INSECTS 


205 


amounts  may  be  divided.  When  wanted  for  use,  the  emul- 
sion is  diluted  by  taking  one  part  of  emulsion  to  ten  parts  of 
water  for  hard-bodied  insects,  or  one  part  to  fifteen  of  water 
for  soft-bodied  ones.  It  should  be  applied  with  a  very  fine 
spray.    Kerosene  emulsion  kills  by  contact. 

Poisons  are  applied  by  various  kinds  of  apparatus.    For 
large  operations,  as  in   orchards,  spray-pumps  operated  by 


38.     A  POWER  Sprayer  used  in  the  orchard  at  purdue  university 
By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station 


compressed  air  are  used.  Spray-pumps  operated  by  hand 
are  much  used.  For  spraying  potatoes  and  sugar  beets  a  bar- 
rel is  mounted  on  a  truck  and  the  contents  are  forced  out  of 
nozzles  attached  to  a  frame  behind  the  truck.  For  gardens 
and  flower  beds  a  garden  spray-pump  can  be  used,  and  even 
a  sprinkling-can  is  useful  for  small  operations.  For  applying 
dry  powders  various  kinds  of  bellows  are  used. 

'  The  time  of  spraying  is  important.     It  is  often  done  too 
late.    Usually  spraying  should  not  be  done  when  plants  are 


206  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

in  blossom,  for  in  so  doing  many  useful  insects  which  aid  in 
pollenizing  the  blossoms  will  be  killed.  As  soon  as  the  blos- 
soms drop,  all  tree  fruits  should  be  sprayed.  This  will  catch 
the  codling-moth  on  apples.  Potatoes  should  be  sprayed  as 
soon  as  they  are  a  few  inches  high.  Since  rains  usually  wash 
off  the  sprays,  spraying  should  be  done  several  times  during 
a  season.  Then,  too,  some  substances  lose  their  effectiveness 
after  being  exposed  for  a  time. 

All  experiment  stations  publish  bulletins  about  insects  and 
spraying.    These  can  always  be  had  free  for  the  asking. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 
PLANT  DISEASES  AND  THEIR  TREATMENT 

There  are  many  diseases  which  attack  the  farmer's  crops 
and  fruits.  They  are  often  quite  injurious  and  cut  down  the 
yield  very  much,  and  sometimes  completely  destroy  the  crops. 
For  some  of  these  diseases  no  remedy  has  been  discovered  as 
yet,  while  for  many  of  them  we  know  what  to  do,  and  when 
properly  handled  they  cause  little  injury.  We  shall  speak 
of  only  a  few  of  the  common  plant  diseases. 

1.  Smuts. — The  oat  smut  is  one  of  the  most  common.  It 
shows  itself  when  the  oats  begin  to  head  out.  The  heads 
turn  black  and  become  a  mass  of  black  or  brownish  dust. 
This  dust  is  the  seed  of  the  smut  and  is  called  the  spores. 
When  the  ripe  oats  are  cut  these  blasted  heads  are  also  gath- 
ered into  the  bundles,  and  when  threshed  some  of  these  spores 
get  mixed  with  the  oats.  Next  spring  when  oats  are  sowed 
some  of  these  spores  go  into  the  ground  and,  sprouting,  grow 
into  the  tissues  of  the  plant  until  heading  time  when  they 
show  in  the  blackened  head.  Oat  smut  can  be  controlled  by 
spraying  the  seed  oats  until  they  are  damp  with  formalin  at 
the  rate  of  one  pound  of  formalin  to  fifty  gallons  of  water.* 
The  formalin  should  be  full  forty  per  cent,  solution  of  formal- 
dehyde. The  oats  should  be  piled  in  a  heap  and  covered  for  a 
half-hour  or  more  and  then  spread  out  to  dry. 

*  Farmers'  Bulletin,  250. 
207 


208  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

There  is  a  similar  loose  smut  which  attacks  wheat  and 
barley,  but  no  effective  remedy  is  known  for  it.  Wheat  is 
often  attacked  by  a  smut  which  makes  the  inside  of  the  grain 
a  mass  of  black  powder  or  spores.  The  kernel  when  broken 
open  has  a  bad  odor.  This  is  known  as  stinking  smut.  It 
can  be  controlled  by  treating  the  seed  wheat  with  formalin 
the  same  as  for  oat  smut.  We  often  see  large  black  masses 
attached  to  corn  plants.  This  is  corn  smut.  No  sure  remedy 
is  known  for  it.  It  is  best  to  collect  all  such  masses  and  burn 
them  on  the  trash  pile. 

2.  Rusts. — There  are  many  kinds  of  rusts  and  they  are  to 
be  found  on  nearly  all  species  of  plants.  One  of  the  most 
common  is  the  wheat  rust.  Wheat  rust  is  of  two  kinds.  The 
kind  that  makes  the  reddish  spots  on  the  leaves  is  called 
orange-leaf  rust.  The  kind  that  forms  blackish  blotches  on 
the  stem  is  known  as  hlack-stem  rust.  No  remedy  is  known. 
The  same  rusts  attack  oats  and  barley,  but  rarely  rye. 

Growers  of  blackberries,  raspberries,  and  dewberries  often 
have  their  plants  attacked  by  a  rust  known  as  anthracnose. 
It  appears  as  gray  patches  with  distinct  purple  borders  on  the 
lower  part  of  the  stems  and  soon  causes  them  to  wilt  and  die. 
The  best  remedy  is  to  cut  out  and  burn  all  diseased  stems. 
Spraying  with  copper  sulphate  solution  before  the  buds  open 
and  with  Bordeaux  mixture  afterward  is  helpful. 

3.  Blights. — A  disease  which  causes  the  leaves  of  a  plant 
to  wither  and  die  without  any  very  easily  discovered  cause  is 
usually  called  a  blight.  Pears  and  quinces  are  often  attacked 
by  leaf-blight,  which  causes  the  leaves  to  die  and  fall  to  the 
ground.  The  twigs  appear  black  and  dead  and  the  fruit  be- 
comes hard  and  knotty.  This  blight  can  be  controlled  by 
spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  several  times  during  the 


PLANT  DISEASES   AND  THEIR  TREATMENT         209 

spring  months,  beginning  as  soon  as  the  first  leaves  are 
opened. 

There  is  another  leaf-blight  which  attacks  pears,  quinces, 
and  apples  and  makes  the  leaves  look  as  if  they  had  been 
scorched  by  fire.  The  leaves  do  not  fall  off  as  in  the  case  of 
the  other  leaf -blight.  This  blight  is  called  fire-blight  or  twig- 
blight.  There  is  no  remedy  but  to  cut  out  the  affected  twigs 
and  burn  them. 

Another  serious  disease  which  may  be  called  a  blight  is  the 
black  knot  of  plum  and  cherry  trees.  The  twigs  and  limbs 
swell  at  various  points,  becoming  larger  than  the  surrounding 
parts.  The  swellings  become  very  black  by  winter.  The 
next  spring  the  swellings  continue  to  increase  at  their  edges 
until  the  twig  or  limb  dies.  There  is  no  effective  remedy. 
Cutting  off  the  attacked  limbs  some  distance  from  the  swelling 
is  probably  best.  Painting  the  knots  with  kerosene  is  also 
helpful.  Spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  will  tend  to  pre- 
vent the  starting  of  new  swellings. 

Potatoes  are  attacked  by  two  bad  blights.  One  is  the  early 
blight  and  the  other  is  the  late  blight.  The  early  blight  ap- 
pears as  circular  yellow  spots  near  the  edges  of  the  leaves. 
As  time  goes  on,  the  spots  increase  in  size,  become  brown  in 
color,  the  leaves  roll  up,  the  stems  become  affected,  and  the 
plant  dies.  Dry  weather  seems  to  be  favorable  to  this  disease. 
This  blight  is  not  fully  understood  yet,  but  spraying  with 
Bordeaux  mixture  has  been  beneficial.  The  late  blight  is 
helped  by  warm,  moist  weather  and  soon  destroys  a  potato 
plant.  This  blight  appears  as  irregular-shaped  brown  spots 
anywhere  on  the  leaves  and  spreads  rapidly,  soon  killing  the 
plants.  In  the  case  of  this  blight  the  potatoes  in  the  ground 
also  rot.    This  blight  usually  appears  later  in  the  season  than 


210 


AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 


the  early  blight.  Thorough  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture 
will  control  this  disease.  Spraying  should  begin  when  the 
tops  are  about  six  inches  tall. 

The  leaves  of  peach-trees  sometimes  curl  up,  turn  yellow, 
and  fall  off.  Another  set  of  leaves  soon  comes  out  again. 
This  disease  is  called  leaf  curl.    It  is  treated  by  spraying  with 


39.      A   POTATO   SPRAYER   FOR   BUGS   AND   BLIGHTS 
This  kind  is  useful  in  large  fields 

copper  sulphate  solution  before  the  buds  open  and  afterward 
with  Bordeaux  mixture. 

Peach  Yellows  is  a  disease  in  which  the  peaches  ripen  too 
soon  and  have  red  streaks  in  them.  The  next  year  the  leaves 
come  out  in  tufts  and  are  yellowish  in  color.  The  cause  is 
not  known,  nor  has  any  remedy  been  successful.  The  disease 
will  spread  easily  and  all  attacked  trees  should  be  cut  down 
and  burned. 

4.  Wilt. — Where  flax  has  been  grown  for  a  number  of 
years  on  the  same  piece  of  ground  without  rotation,  it  usually 


PLANT   DISEASES    AND   THEIR  TREATMENT  211 

becomes  diseased.  The  plants  begin  to  look  sickly,  wilt,  and 
die.  This  is  called  flax  wilt.  It  can  be  controlled  by  prac- 
ticing a  rotation  and  by  spraying  the  seed  until  moist  with 
formalin  at  the  rate  of  one  pound  of  formalin  to  forty-five 
gallons  of  water. 

Cow-peas  grown  continuously  on  the  same  piece  of  ground 
are  also  often  attacked  by  a  wilt.  It  is  controlled  by  rotation 
and  planting  varieties  which  are  not  easily  effected  by  the 
disease. 

5.  Rot. — Many  plants  are  attacked  by  diseases  which  are 
called  "rot."  There  are  several  forms  of  rot  and  each  would 
have  to  be  described  separately.  Some  of  the  worst  forms  are 
the  bitter  rot  of  apples,  two  or  three  kinds  of  rot  which  attack 
grapes,  and  the  tomato  rot.  In  a  general  way  these  can  be 
controlled  by  the  use  of  Bordeaux  mixture,  and  by  picking, 
and  destroying  all  fruit  beginning  to  decay. 

6.  Scab. — Scab  is  a  disease  indicated  by  rough  and  knotty 
places  on  the  skins  of  the  fruit.  In  the  case  of  potato  scab,  it 
gives  the  potato  the  appearance  of  having  been  chewed  by  an 
insect.  For  the  scab  on  apples  and  pears  it  is  well  to  spray 
with  Bordeaux  mixture  several  times  during  the  season,  begin- 
ning early  in  spring  before  the  buds  open.  Potato  scab  is 
controlled,  first,  by  planting  in  a  new  field  each  year,  and, 
secondly,  by  soaking  the  tubers  in  a  solution  of  formalin  made 
by  using  one  pound  of  formalin  to  thirty  gallons  of  water. 
The  potatoes  should  be  soaked  two  hours  in  this  solution  be- 
fore planting. 

Bordeaux  Mixture. — This  mixture  is  made  as  follows: 
Dissolve  four  pounds  of  copper  sulphate  in  hot  water.  Then 
slake  four  pounds  of  lime  in  a  separate  vessel  and  add  water 
until  it  is  like  milk.    Strain  the  lime  through  a  sieve  to  re- 


212  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

move  chunks.  Mix  the  lime  and  copper  sulphate  by  pouring 
from  each  vessel  at  the  same  time  into  a  third  vessel.  It  is 
very  important  to  do  this  in  order  to  get  a  perfect  mixture. 
Stir  up  this  mixture  with  fifty  gallons  of  water  in  a  coal- 
oil  barrel.  When  it  is  desired  to  spray  for  insects  and  plant 
diseases  at  the  same  time,  four  ounces  of  Paris  green  or  Lon- 
don purple  can  be  added  to  the  above  quantities.  For  tender 
plants  only  one-half  of  the  quantities  of  lime  and  copper  sul- 
phate should  be  used. 

Copper  Sulphate  Solution .^This  is  made  exactly  as  the 
Bordeaux  mixture,  except  that  the  lime  is  left  out.  It  is  to  be 
used  only  before  the  buds  begin  to  swell. 


SECTION  IV.— ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

CHAPTER  XXX 
FARM  ANIMALS:    I.  THE  HORSE 

By  farm  animals  we  mean  horses,  mules,  cattle,  sheep, 
goats,  swine,  and  poultry.  These  animals  have  been  known 
and  used  by  man  for  many  centuries.  At  first  they  existed  as 
wild  animals.  As  man  found  use  for  them  he  gradually 
tamed  and  developed  them.  There  are  many  different  kinds 
of  each,  brought  to  their  present  state  of  development  by  the 
nature  of  the  climate  in  which  they  live,  the  use  to  which 
they  have  been  put  by  man,  selection  and  improvement  by 
breeders,  and  various  other  causes. 

The  Horse. — The  discoveries  of  geologists  tell  us  that 
horses  have  developed  from  queer  animals  which  lived  ages 
ago.  These  animals  had  five  toes  on  each  foot  and  in  size 
were  about  as  large  as  a  fox-terrier,  but  as  ages  went  by 
they  were  modified  by  the  climatic  and  food  conditions 
until  there  was  developed  an  animal  much  like  our  present 
horse.  The  splint  bones  which  are  often  seen  on  the  legs  of 
horses  are  the  remains  of  what  were  once  toes.  The  color  of 
the  prehistoric  horse  is  thought  to  have  been  striped,  some- 
what like  the  zebra. 

The  horse  was  originally  a  native  of  Central  Asia.  When 
man  began  to  use  and  breed  horses  he  modified  them  very 

213 


214 


AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 


much  to  suit  his  needs  and  fancy,  and  in  this  way  it  happens 
that  we  have  so  many  different  breeds.  We  shall  consider  a 
few  of  the  more  common  ones. 

There  are  two  general  types  of  horses;  viz.,  the  draft  type 
and  the  harness  type.    The  draft  type  is  a  low,  heavily  built 


40.      MARINDAS,  (62414)  42696 
A  prize  winning  Percheron  imported  from  France 

horse  with  strong  legs  and  large  feet.  His  movements  are 
comparatively  slow  and  he  is  adapted  to  drawing  heavy  loads. 
The  harness  type  has  a  smaller  body,  smaller  and  longer 
limbs,  and  smaller  feet.  He  is  fitted  for  rapid  movements 
and  drawing  light  loads.  The  draft  type  was  developed  in 
northern  Europe  from  what  has  been  called  the  Black  Horse 


THE   HORSE 


215 


of  Flanders.     The  speed  type  has  been  developed  largely 
from  the  Arabian  horse. 

Draft  Types. — 1.  The  Percheron. — ^This  breed  gets  its 
name  from  the  province  of  La  Perche,  in  France,  where  it  was 


41.    ROYAL  PRINCE,  FIRST  PRIZE  THREE-YEAR-OLD  CLYDESDALE  STALLION 
International  Live  Stock  Show,  Chicago,  December,  1908 


first  developed.  The  Black  Horse  of  northern  Europe  seems 
to  have  been  mated  to  stallions  from  Arabia.  The  breed  is 
large,  active,  and  strong.  The  legs  have  very  little  long  hair 
on  them.  The  Percheron  is  superior  in  legs  and  sound  feet. 
Stallions  usually  weigh  1,750  to  2,200  pounds,  and  mares 
1,500  to  1,800  pounds.    The  most  common  colors  are  grays 


216  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

and  blacks,  but  bays  and  browns  are  sometimes  seen.  The 
Percheron  breed  is  very  popular  in  the  United  States,  and 
no  other  draft  breed  is  so  largely  bred  pure. 

There  are  other  breeds  of  draft-horses  brought  to  America 
in  small  numbers  from  France,  which  are  frequently  called 
French  Draft.  This  term  includes  a  number  of  draft  types. 
The  names  Percheron-Norman  and  Norman  are  local  names 
and  are  not  generally  used.  They  usually  refer  to  the  Per- 
cheron breed. 

2.  Clydesdale. — This  breed  originated  in  Scotland  from  the 
breeding  of  the  native  mares  to  Black  stallions  brought  from 
Flanders.  The  Clydesdale  horse  is  noted  for  his  rapid  walk 
and  long  stride.  This  breed  is  usually  bay  or  brown  with  a 
white  marking  on  the  forehead  or  face.  The  legs  are  usually 
white  up  to  the  knees  and  hocks,  and  there  is  a  considerable 
amount  of  long  hair  on  the  legs.  This  long  hair  is  called  "  the 
feather"  by  horsemen.  The  nose  should  be  straight,  not 
dished  nor  bulged  as  is  often  seen.  The  back  of  the  Clydesdale 
is  somewhat  longer  than  that  of  other  breeds.  Stallions  usu- 
ally weigh  about  2,000  pounds  and  mares  about  1,800  pounds. 
Next  to  the  Percheron  the  Clydesdale  is  probably  the  most 
popular  draft-horse  raised  in  America. 

3.  The  Shire. — The  Shire  horse  is  the  great  draft  breed  of 
England.  In  America  it  is  best  known  in  Canada  and  the 
north  central  states.  It  is 'also  popular  in  large  cities  for 
heavy  draying.  This  breed  doubtless  also  originated  in  the 
Black  Horse  of  Flanders,  but  was  developed  and  improved 
in  England.  The  Shire  is  exceeded  in  size  by  the  Belgian 
only.  He  differs  from  the  Clydesdale  in  having  a  shorter 
back,  more  "feather"  on  the  legs,  flatter  foot,  and  a  slower 
movement.    The  foot  is  so  flat  as  to  be  sometimes  quite  ob- 


THE   HORSE  217 

jectionable.  Shire  horses  are  good-natured  and  are  very 
popular  with  those  who  handle  them.  They  are  usually 
black,  bay,  and  brown,  with  white  on  the  face  and  on  the  legs 
below  the  knee  and  hock. 

4.  The  Belgian. — In  ancient  times  Belgium  was  the  great- 
est horse-breeding  country  in  the  world.  In  recent  times  it 
has  again  begun  to  attract  attention.  The  Belgian  breed  is 
not  well  known  in  the  United  States,  being  confined  mainly 
to  Iowa,  Illinois,  and  Indiana.  The  Belgian  is  a  very  com- 
pact, blocky  horse,  with  broad  breast  and  back,  short  legs, 
rather  small  feet,  and  somewhat  slow  in  action.  The  legs 
have  very  little  hair  on  them.  In  color  the  breed  is  sorrel, 
bay,  and  roan.  Those  coming  from  that  part  of  Belgium 
known  as  Flanders  are  the  largest  and  heaviest  of  draft- 
horses. 

5.  The  Suffolk. — This  is  often  known  as  Suffolk  Punch,  a 
name  given  it  because  of  the  round,  full  body  which  is  charac- 
teristic of  the  breed.  The  Suffolk  breed  has  been  bred  pure  in 
Suffolk  County,  England,  at  least  as  far  back  as  1768.  The 
breed  is  not  so  large  and  heavy  as  the  Clydesdale  and  Shire, 
but  combines  great  strength  with  rapid  action  and  is  a  favorite 
farm  horse  in  England.  The  established  color  is  chestnut, 
never  anything  else.  There  are  as  yet  few  Suffolk  horses  in 
the  United  States. 

The  Harness  Type. — This  type  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes:  the  heavy-harness  class  and  the  light-harness  class. 
The  heavy-harness  class  combines  weight,  strength,  and  rapid 
action.  Horses  of  this  class  are  fitted  for  carriage  and  coach 
purposes,  as  well  as  being  useful  for  general  farm  work  and 
light  hauling.  Ordinarily,  they  are  about  sixteen  hands  high 
and  weigh  from  1,100  to  1,350  pounds. 


218  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

1.  The  French  Coach. — This  breed  comes  from  that  part  of 
France  known  as  Normandy,  where  it  has  been  bred  for  many 
years.  Animals  of  this  breed  have  long  bodies,  long  and  arch- 
ing necks,  and  a  long,  powerful  stride  and  high  knee  action. 
The  French  speed  their  horses  on  sod,  because  they  believe 
that  travelling  over  such  a  track  will  develop  the  kind  of  action 
most  desirable  in  a  carriage  horse.  The  color  of  the  breed  is 
sorrel,  bay,  and  brown,  in  varying  shades.  This  breed  is 
widely  distributed  in  the  United  States,  but  the  total  number 
is  not  large. 

2.  The  German  Coach. — This  breed  consists  of  several 
types,  depending  on  the  section  of  Germany  from  which  they 
come,  such  as  the  Hanoverian,  Oldenburg,  and  East  Friesland 
horses.  The  Oldenburg  is  the  heaviest  type  and  the  one 
most  commonly  imported  to  America.  The  color  of  the 
German  Coach  is  always  a  bay,  brown,  or  black.  The  body 
is  heavier  than  that  of  the  French  Coacher.  The  German 
Coach  horse  nearly  always  has  good  feet.  The  breed  is  from 
sixteen  to  sixteen  and  a  half  hands  high  and  weighs  from 
1,350  to  1450  pounds.  There  are  very  few  pure-bred  French 
Coach  and  German  Coach  horses  raised  in  the  United  States; 
nearly  all  are  imported. 

3.  The  Hackney. — Hackney  is  a  term  formerly  applied  to 
a  class  of  horses  used  for  drawing  light  vehicles  at  considerable 
speed.  Modern  selection  has  developed  them  into  a  breed  of 
heavy-harness  horses.  This  breed  was  first  developed  in 
north-eastern  England.  The  Hackney  is  a  horse  with  a 
broad  and  level  back,  short,  round  body,  short  legs,  arching 
neck,  with  head  carried  high — altogether  a  strongly-built, 
active  animal.  The  Hackney  is  a  *' high-stepper,"  that  is, 
the  knee  and  hock  are  bent  so  that  the  feet  are  lifted  high  and 


THE    HORSE  219 

clear  from  the  ground.  His  gait  is  not  as  fast  as  his  move- 
ments suggest.  The  color  is  usually  chestnut,  bay,  or  brown 
with  white  markings.     In  the  United  States  Hackneys  are 


42.      MINNO   3577,   A   CHAMPION   GERMAN   COACH   STALLION 

most  common  in  the  eastern  states  and  cities.    The  breed  is 
not  quite  so  large  and  heavy  as  the  other  coach  breeds. 

4.  The  Cleveland  Bay. — The  native  home  of  the  Cleveland 
Bay  horse  is  in  York  County,  England,  and  it  is  still  bred 
there  in  larger  numbers  than  elsewhere.  This  breed  is  the 
largest  of  the  coach  breeds,  being  about  sixteen  and  one-half 
hands  high  on  an  average,  and  weighing  from  1,200  to  1,500 
pounds.    The  breed  is  always  bay  in  color,  with  black  legs, 


220  AGRICULTUKE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

mane,  and  tail.  A  star  in  the  forehead  and  a  few  white  hairs 
on  the  heels  is  all  the  white  allowed  for  pure-bred  animals. 
The  Cleveland  Bay  has  never  been  largely  introduced  into  the 
United  States,  but  would  be  a  good  horse  for  ordinary  farm 
work  as  well  as  for  carriage  purposes. 

The  light-harness  class  combines  great  strength  and  rapid 
movement  with  considerably  less  weight  than  that  of  the 
heavy-harness  or  coach  class.  To  the  light-harness  class  be- 
long trotters,  pacers,  and  roadsters.  The  runners  and  sad- 
dlers may  also  be  mentioned  in  this  connection.  Only  one  of 
these,  the  runner  or  thoroughbred,  can  be  said  to  be  so  pure- 
bred as  to  be  recognized  as  a  real  breed.  All  the  others  are 
of  more  or  less  mixed  breeding. 

All  the  types  belonging  to  the  light-harness  or  speed  class 
are  characterized  by  their  long,  slim  necks,  lank  bodies,  long, 
clean  legs,  and  a  general  bony  appearance.  The  body  of  a 
horse  belonging  to  this  class  is  not  as  round  and  full  as  that 
of  a  draft  or  coach  horse.  A  cross-section  back  of  the  shoul- 
ders would  be  elliptical  in  outline.  Such  a  deep  and  thin  body 
is  favorable  to  good  lung  action,  so  desirable  for  rapid  move- 
ment and  long  endurance. 

The  foundation  stock  of  the  Thoroughbred,  that  is,  the  ani- 
mals first  used  to  start  the  breed,  were  stallions  from  Arabia 
and  the  Barbary  States.  These  were  mated  to  the  native 
English  mares.  By  selection  from  the  offspring  the  breed 
was  established  and  has  been  well  known  for  about  two  hun- 
dred years.  Fresh  blood  from  the  Orient  has  been  frequently 
brought  in  for  the  improvement  and  maintenance  of  the 
breed.  The  Thoroughbred  is  a  natural  runner  and  in  Eng- 
land he  is  much  used  for  hunting.  Such  horses  are  called 
Hunters. 


THE   HORSE  221 

The  American  Trotter  is  a  class  of  horses  bred  for  racing 
and  Hght  driving.  The  breed  in  the  beginning  had  a  good 
deal  of  Thoroughbred  blood  in  it  The  trotters  are  divided 
into  families  and  each  is  named  after  some  famous  stallion 
who  was  the  sire  of  a  number  of  race  winners.  Six  of  the 
more  prominent  families  are:  *  1.  The  Hambletonian,  named 
after  Hambletonian  10.    2.  The  Mambrino,  after  Mambrino 


43.      AIKEN   DILLON,   A  TYPICAL   ROADSTER 

Chief.  3.  The  Morgan,  after  a  horse  named  Justin  Morgan. 
4.  The  Clay,  after  a  horse  called  Henry  Clay.  5.  The  Pilot, 
after  Pilot.  6.  The  Hal,  after  Tom  Hal.  The  last  family  is 
one  of  the  most  distinguished.  Many  of  its  members  were  fast 
pacers. 

The  pacer  had  about  the  same  origin,  as  the  trotter,  and 
about  the  only  difference  between  a  pacer  and  a  trotter  is  the 
gait.    Many  horses  both  pace  and  trot.    The  pacing  gait  is  a 
*  Plumb:   Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals. 


222  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

faster  one  than  the  trotting.  Dan  Patch  is  at  this  time  (1908) 
the  fastest  pacer  in  the  world.    His  record  is  a  mile  in  1 :  55 J. 

The  roadster  is  a  harness  type  of  the  trotter  or  pacer  class, 
somewhat  heavier  than  is  used  for  racing,  but  not  as  heavy 
as  a  coacher.  The  roadster  is  desirable  for  pulling  light  vehi- 
cles on  the  road.  He  is  especially  desired  by  physicians  and 
others  who  have  much  driving  to  do. 

The  American  Saddle-Horse  was  developed  mainly  in 
Kentucky.  Because  of  bad  roads,  which  made  travel  by 
horseback  necessary,  an  easy-gaited  saddle-horse  was  desirable. 
The  saddle-horse  had  a  great  deal  of  Thoroughbred  blood  in 
his  early  ancestry.  Many  pacers  were  also  used  in  the  breed- 
ing-stock. A  saddle-horse  must  have  a  very  strong  back  in 
order  to  carry  his  rider  well. 

Stud  Books. — Usually  the  men  interested  in  a  breed  or 
class  of  horses  meet  and  form  a  society  to  promote  the 
interests  of  that  breed.  They  publish  a  book  in  which  are 
listed  the  names,  ages,  owners,  descriptions,  and  pedigrees  of 
their  animals.  A  pedigree  is  the  ancestry  of  the  animal  for 
several  generations  back.  Such  books  are  called  stud  books. 
When  an  animal  has  its  name  and  description  in  one  of  these 
books  it  is  said  to  be  registered.  Each  association  lays  down 
certain  rules  and  requirements  which  an  animal  must  fulfil 
before  it  can  be  registered.  For  example,  before  a  saddle- 
horse  can  be  registered  in  the  American  Saddle-Horse  Stud 
Book  he  must  be  able  to  move  in  five  different  gaits — ^walk, 
trot,  rack,  canter,  and  either  running  walk,  fox-trot,  or  slow 
pace. 

What  has  been  said  concerning  the  registering  of  horses  in 
stud  books,  is  also  true  of  all  other  kinds  and  breeds  of  ani- 
mals.   Men  who  raise  pure-bred  cattle  have  their  herd  books 


THE    HORSE  223 

in  which  are  listed  and  described  the  choice  bulls  and  cows  of 
the  particular  breed  in  which  the  breeder  is  interested. 
Each  breed  has  its  own  herd  book.  The  herd  book  for  sheep 
is  called  a  flock  book.  For  swine  the  registry  book  is  also 
called  a  herd  book. 

Gaits  of  a  Saddle  Horse.* — The  three  natural  gaits  of  a 
horse  are  the  walk,  trot,  and  gallop  or  run.  By  training  the 
gallop  is  changed  into  a  canter,  which  is  really  only  a  slower 
movement  and  easier  to  ride.  We  then  have  the  walk-trot- 
canter  or  plain-gaited  horse.  There  are  two  other  easier  gaits 
— the  running  walk  and  the  rack.  The  running  walk  is  faster 
than  a  flat-foot  walk  and  is  an  easy  movement  both  for  the 
horse  and  the  rider.  In  it  each  foot  strikes  the  ground  inde- 
pendently. The  slow  pace  is  a  kind  of  running  walk  but  also 
resembles  the  pace.  The  two  feet  on  each  side  strike  the 
ground  at  almost  the  same  time.  It  is  a  comfortable  gait. 
The  fox-trot  is  a  slow  trot  or  jogrtrot.  It  is  also  a  kind  of  run- 
ning walk.  It  is  a  broken-time  movement  and  is  somewhat 
easier  than  the  pure  trot. 

The  trot  is  the  diagonal  gait.  The  off  fore  foot  and  the 
near  hind  foot  strike  the  ground  at  the  same  instant  and  the 
horse  bounds  off  them  to  hit  the  ground  on  the  other  two 
feet.  This  gives  a  two-beat  gait.  The  pace  is  the  lateral 
gait.  The  off  forefoot  and  the  off  hindfoot  hit  the  ground  at 
the  same  time,  followed  by  the  pair  on  the  near  side.  The 
rack  is  a  four-beat  gait.  Each  foot  strikes  the  ground  at  a 
different  moment  and  its  stroke  rings  clear  and  distinct  on 
the  hard  road-bed.  The  rack  is  easy  for  the  rider  but  hard 
on  the  horse.  The  rack  is  sometimes  called  single-foot,  but 
this  term  is  incorrect. 

*  Abbreviated  from  Breeder's  Gazette,  June  10,  1903. 


224 


AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 


The  American  Saddle-Horse  Breeders'  Association  recog- 
nizes five  gaits;  namely,  the  walk,  trot,  canter,  rack,  and  the 
running  walk  or  slow  pace,  or  fox-trot.  When  a  horse  can 
show  these  five  gaits  he  is  called  a  gaited  horse. 

Ponies. — Horsemen  are  generally  agreed  that  a  horse  less 


44.       SHETLAND    PONY,    GENERAL   SHAFTER 
A  prize  winner  at  many  State  Fairs 

than  fourteen  and  a  quarter  hands  high  should  be  called  a 
pony.  There  are  several  breeds  of  ponies,  most  of  which 
come  from  England,  Wales,  and  Scotland. 

1.  The  Shetland  pony's  native  home  is  the  Shetland  Isl- 
ands, lying  north  of  Scotland.  It  is,  however,  bred  in  many 
other  places.     The  Shetland   pony  is  a  small   draft-horse. 


THE   HORSE  225 

being  strong  in  body  and  legs.  The  hair  is  quite  long,  being 
necessarily  so  in  the  cold  climate  of  the  Shetland  Islands.  It 
ranges  in  height  from  thirty-six  to  forty-four  inches.  Shetland 
ponies  bred  in  the  United  States  and  well  cared  for  grow 
larger  than  in  their  native  country.  They  are  of  all  colors. 
They  are  used  in  mines  in  England,  but  in  America  are  used 
almost  entirely  for  children's  pets.  They  are  very  gentle  and 
can  be  safely  handled  by  any  child  who  does  not  abuse  them. 

2.  Other  Ponies. — The  Welsh  pony  comes  from  Wales. 
Some  are  large  enough  to  pass  for  horses.  These  ponies  are 
quite  well  known  and  are  very  popular,  as  are  also  the 
Hackney  ponies.  These  are  really  only  small-sized  Hackney 
horses.  In  America  we  have  the  Indian  ponies,  mustangs, 
and  bronchos,  which  are  different  names  for  practically  the 
same  animal.  The  mustang  and  broncho  are  the  names  used 
in  the  South  and  West,  while  the  others  are  more  common  in 
the  northern  states  of  the  West.  These  ponies  are  descendants 
of  horses  brought  to  America  by  the  early  Spaniards.  When 
properly  treated  they  are  very  useful  in  their  native  regions. 
The  Polo  pony  is  simply  a  small  horse,  active  and  strong 
enough  to  be  used  for  polo-playing. 

The  Mule. — The  donkey  is  a  distinct  breed  just  as  the 
horse  is.  It  is  native  to  Asia.  A  mule  is  a  cross  between  a 
horse  and  a  donkey.  The  breeding  and  raising  of  mules  is 
extensively  carried  on  in  the  United  States.  Missouri, 
Texas,  Tennessee,  and  Kentucky  are  the  leading  states  in 
mule-raising.  St.  Louis  is  the  largest  mule  market  in  the 
world.  It  is  interesting  to  know  that  George  Washington  was 
prominent  as  a  breeder  of  mules  and  that  Henry  Clay  introduced 
mule-breeding  into  Kentucky. 

Mules  differ  very  much  in  type  according  to  the  use  for 


226  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

which  they  are  bred.  For  example,  in  the  markets  they  are 
classed  as  plantation  mules,  cotton  mules,  lumber  mules,  rail- 
road mules,  mine  mules,  and  levee  mules,  according  as  they 
are  fitted  to  do  the  work  in  the  various  places. 

Mules  are  used  more  extensively  in  the  southern  states  than 
in  the  northern.  They  can  stand  warm  weather  and  hard 
work  better  than  horses,  nor  do  they  suffer  so  much  from 
the  attacks  of  insects  and  diseases.  The  mule  is  a  patient, 
faithful,  and  gentle  animal  when  sensibly  treated  and  is  use- 
ful for  hard  work  for  a  long  period  of  years. 

The  burro  of  the  South-west  and  the  Rocky  Mountains  is 
a  small  animal  of  the  donkey  family. 


CHAPTER  XXXI 
FARM  ANIMALS:    11.  CATTLE 

Cattle. — Cattle  existed  in  Europe  and  Asia  before  the 
ice  age.  Bones  of  cattle  have  been  found  in  the  ruins  of  the 
Lake-dwellers  in  Switzerland.  Our  present  domesticated 
cattle  were  developed  from  the  native  cattle  of  Great  Britain 
and  western  Europe,  which  in  turn  were  brought  there  prob- 
ably by  the  invading  tribes  from  the  East.  The  original  native 
cattle  of  Great  Britain  are  represented  by  the  wild  white 
cattle  found  on  a  reserve  in  southern  England  and  by  the 
Kyloes  of  Scotland  and  the  Black  cattle  of  Wales.  These 
wild  cattle  are  closely  inbred  and  are  being  carefully  pro- 
tected. 

There  are  said  to  be  more  than  one  hundred  different 
breeds  of  cattle.*  Only  a  very  few  of  these  are  well  known  or 
of  much  importance.  All  the  breeds  in  America  were  origi- 
nally brought  from  Great  Britain  or  the  Continent.  The 
most  important  breeds  are  grouped  into  three  classes:  beef 
breeds,  dairy  breeds,  and  dual-purpose  breeds. 

Beef  Breeds. — Beef  breeds  are  raised  primarily  for  their 
flesh-producing  qualities.  None  but  the  Shorthorn  gives 
enough  milk  to  be  profitable  for  milk  and  butter  production. 
All  beef  breeds  are  blocky  in  appearance,  having  short  legs, 
deep,  compact  bodies,  thick,  deep  quarters,  short,  thick  necks, 

*  Brooks'  Agriculture,  p.  544. 
227 


228 


AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 


broad  backs,  and  ribs  well  covered  with  flesh.  Most  breeds 
may  be  recognized  by  their  color.  The  following  are  the 
principal  beef  breeds: 

1.  Shorthorn. — This    is    the   largest   in    number    of    any 
of  the  beef  breeds.    The  breed  came  from  north-eastern  Eng- 


45- 


IMPORTED    MERRY   HAMPTON 
A  typical  Shorthorn 


land,  where  it  was  probably  developed  from  cattle  brought  in 
by  the  early  invaders  of  England  and  bred  to  the  native  cattle. 
They  were  called  Shorthorn  because  of  their  short  horns  as 
compared  with  horns  of  native  stock.  They  are  also  often 
called  Durham,  because  of  the  county  of  Durham  in  which 


CATTLE  229 

they  were  largely  bred.  Still  older  names  were  Teeswater  and 
Holderness.  The  Shorthorn  was  one  of  the  first  breeds  to  be 
improved.  Such  noted  men  as  the  Colling  brothers,  Thomas 
Bates,  Thomas  Booth,  and  Amos  Cruickshank  were  leaders  in 
this  improvement.  Some  of  their  best  animals  were  founders 
of  noted  Shorthorn  families,  such  as  Princess,  Duchess,  Wild 
Eyes,  Cherry  Blossom,  Violet,  and  Secret.  The  various  fami- 
lies produced  by  Thomas  Bates  were  all  heavy  milk  producers. 
The  Shorthorn  is  equalled  in  weight  only  by  the  Hereford. 
Cows  weigh  about  1,600  pounds  and  bulls  about  2,000 
pounds  and  more.  The  color  is  red,  white,  combinations  of 
red  and  white,  and  roan,  never  any  black.  Red  and  roan 
seem  to  be  equally  popular  colors.  The  Shorthorn  is  nearly 
always  gentle  and  easily  managed. 

A  breed  of  Polled  Durham  cattle  has  been  developed  rather 
recently  in  America.  They  do  not  differ  from  the  standard 
Shorthorn  except  in  being  hornless.  However,  there  are  two 
classes:  1.  The  "single  standard  which  was  produced  by 
breeding  native  muley  cows  to  pure-bred  Shorthorn  bulls. 
Animals  of  this  kind  of  ancestry  can  be  registered  only  in  the 
Polled  Durham  herd  book,  hence  the  term  "single  standard." 
2.  The  "double  standard"  came  from  carefully  breeding 
Shorthorns  with  no  horns.  Animals  of  such  pure  descent  can 
be  registered  in  both  the  American  Shorthorn  herd  book  and 
the  Polled  Durham  herd  book.  It  should  be  understood  that 
a  herd  book  is  the  same  for  cattle  as  the  stud  book  is  for 
horses. 

2.  Hereford. — This  breed  originated  in  Herefordshire, 
England,  and  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  oldest  breeds  in  Eng- 
land. Because  of  their  white  faces  they  are  sometimes  called 
White  Faces^   The  Hereford  is  shorter-legged  than  the  Short- 


230  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

horn,  but  is  equal  to  it  in  weight.  Herefords  are  excellent  for 
beef,  but  are  small  milk  producers,  the  cow  giving  scarcely 
enough  to  support  the  calf.  In  color  they  are  red  with  white 
faces,  and  white  on  the  throat,  belly,  feet,  and  switch.  This 
breed  is  not  quite  so  good  for  close  confinement  as  the  Short- 
horn, but  on  the  western  plains  and  ranges  they  are  superior 
to  Shorthorns.  They  are  good  "rustlers"  and  can  live  on  scant 
pasturage. 

The  first  Herefords  were  brought  to  America  by  Henry 
Clay  in  1817  and  used  in  Kentucky.     Herefords  have  be- 


40.       A    TYPICAL   SHOW    HERD    OF    HEREFORD    CATTLE 

come  quite  popular  in  the  states  bordering  the  Mississippi 
and  west  of  it.  They  have  been  extensively  used  for  improv- 
ing the  cattle  of  the  western  ranges.  They  are  also  exten- 
sively raised  on  the  plains  of  Australia,  Argentina,  New 
Zealand,  and  Canada.  There  is  being  developed  a  breed  of 
polled  Herefords  which  is  very  promising.  They  do  not 
differ  from  the  standard  breed  except  in  having  no  horns. 

3.  Aberdeen  Angus. — This  is  a  Scotch  breed  and  came 
from  the  counties  of  Aberdeen  and  Angus  in  north-eastern 
Scotland.  They  are  frequently  called  "doddies,"  which 
means  hornless  cattle.  The  name  Angus  is  now  mostly  used. 
It  is  a  very  old  breed,  but  improvement  of  the  breed  has  not 
been  going  on  so  long  as  that  of  the  Shorthorn  and  Hereford. 


CATTLE  231 

The  Angus  breed  is  black  and  polled.  They  are  not  quite 
so  heavy  as  the  Shorthorns  and  Herefords,  but  weigh  very 
heavy  in  proportion  to  their  size.  Their  bodies  are  more  cy- 
lindrical than  those  of  the  other  beef  breeds,  the  skin  is  soft 
and  the  hair  short  and  silky.  The  Angus  gives  a  fair  amount 
of  milk,  but  not  so  much  as  the  Shorthorns.    The  beef  of  the 


47.     lucy's  prince,  46181, 

TjT>ical  Angus  bull,  three  times  champion  of  his  breed  at  Chicago 
International  Live  Stock  Shows 

Angus  is  of  superior  quality.  The  breed  stands  confinement 
well  and  makes  good  use  of  feed.  On  the  western  plains  they 
are  not  quite  so  hardy  as  the  Herefords.  They  are  raised 
mostly  in  the  corn-belt  states. 

4.  Galloway. — This  is  also  a  Scotch  breed  and  came  from 
south-western  Scotland.  It  is  a  very  old  breed  and  not  much 
is  known  of  its  origin.  It  has  been  bred  pure  for  more  than 
a  century  and  has  been  hornless  as  far  back  as  records  go. 


232  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

The  Galloway  is  not  quite  so  large  as  the  other  three  beef 
breeds  described.  It  is  short-legged,  rather  long-bodied, 
always  polled,  and  black  in  color.  No  white  or  other  color  is 
permitted  in  pure-bred  animals.  The  hair  of  the  coat  is 
longer  and  more  curly  than  that  of  the  other  breeds,  except 
the  West  Highland.  Quite  often  the  skins  are  tanned  and 
made  into  robes  and  fur  coats.  The  beef  of  this  breed  is  ex- 
cellent, being  as  good  as,  or  better  than,  that  of  the  Angus.  Gal- 
loway cows  do  not  give  much  milk,  although  there  is  enough 
to  raise  the  calves.  The  breed  is  hardy  and  stands  ""se- 
vere climates  and  scant  pasturage  very  well.  For  this  reason 
the  government  is  experimenting  with  Galloway  cattle  in 
Alaska.  They  are  also  being  raised  in  large  numbers  on  the 
western  ranges.  A  few  successful  experiments  have  been 
made  in  breeding  together  the  buffalo  and  the  Galloway. 
The  offspring  is  called  a  Catalo. 

White  Shorthorn  bulls  are  often  bred  to  Galloway  and 
Angus  cows.  This  breeding  gives  animals  that  are  blue-gray 
in  color  and  are  most  excellent  feeders  for  beef  production. 
They  are  commonly  called  "blue-grays." 

5.  Other  Beef  Breeds. — The  West  Highland  breed  of  cattle 
comes  from  the  western  highlands  of  Scotland,  where  they 
run  almost  wild  winter  and  summer.  They  are  the  hardiest 
of  all  breeds.  They  weigh  from  900  to  1,000  pounds,  are 
short-legged,  quite  blocky,  and  have  very  long,  wavy  hair, 
said  sometimes  to  reach  six  inches  in  length.  The  color 
varies,  being  black,  dun,  yellow,  or  brindled.  They  do  not 
give  much  milk  and  are  useful  only  for  their  beef,  which  is 
excellent  in  quality.  There  are  few  West  Highland  cattle  in 
the  United  States,  but  they  might  become  useful  in  the 
mountain  regions  of  the  North-west  and  Alaska. 


CATTLE  233 

The  Sussex  cattle  are  an  English  breed  and  are  scarcely 
known  in  the  United  States.  They  are  almost  as  large  as  the 
Herefords  and  much  resemble  them,  except  that  they  do  not 
have  white  faces.  The  color  is  solid  red.  They  were  formerly 
raised  in  England  to  be  used  as  oxen. 

The  Longhorn  breed  is  also  an  English  breed,  of  which  there 
are  now  but  few  left.  It  resembles  the  Shorthorn  except  in 
its  extremely  long  horns.  Robert  Bakewell  was  one  of  the 
most  famous  breeders  in  England  in  his  time,  and  he  used  the 
Longhorns  in  showing  what  could  be  accomplished  by  scien- 
tific methods. 

Dairy  Breeds. — The  true  dairy  breeds  are  valuable  mainly 
for  their  milk  producing  qualities.  They  are  poor  beef  pro- 
ducers both  in  quality  and  quantity.  The  dairy  type  is  en- 
tirely different  from  the  beef  type.  The  quarters  are  thin  and 
muscular,  not  fleshy.  The  neck  of  the.  cow  is  thin  and  lean, 
but  that  of  the  bull  is  quite  thick  and  strong.  The  barrel  is 
large.  This  indicates  an  ability  to  handle  large  quantities  of 
food,  which  is  necessary  for  the  production  of  large  amounts 
of  milk.  The  ribs  are  wide  apart  and  less  curved  at  the 
upper  part  than  in  beef  breeds.  The  hips  are  quite  promi- 
nent and  angular.  The  legs  are  straight  and  placed  well  apart, 
especially  the  hind  ones.  The  tail  is  long  with  a  large  switch. 
The  skin  of  a  good  dairy  animal  is  soft,  a  rich,  waxy  yellow 
in  color,  and  covered  with  soft,  short  hair.  The  udder  should 
be  large,  squarely  set,  and  the  quarters  of  about  equal  size. 
The  teats  are  well  placed  and  large  enough  to  be  easily  handled 
in  milking.  The  udder  should  extend  high  up  behind  and 
should  be  covered  with  soft  fine  hair.  The  milk  veins,  which 
convey  blood  through  the  udder  toward  the  heart,  show  on 
the  under  side  of  the  abdomen,  and  their  size  is  an  indication 


234 


AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 


of  the  cow's  ability  to  give  milk.  The  holes  where  they  enter 
the  abdomen  near  the  front  legs  are  called  the  "milk  wells." 
On  the  whole,  a  good  dairy  animal  gives  the  impression  of 
being  rather  poor  and  bony. 

Live  stock  men  say  that  the  beef  animal  is  parallelogrammic 
in  form;  that  is,  any  view  that  one  may  take  of  the  animal 


48.      HOOD   FARM   POGIS   9th    55552.      A  TYPICAL  JERSEY   BULL. 
By  courtesy  of  Hood  Farm,  Lowell,  Mass. 

gives  the  rough  outline  of  a  rectangle,  while  the  dairy  animal 
shows  the  wedge  form.  The  good  dairy  type  shows  a  wedge 
form  in  three  directions:  1.  When  viewed  from  the  side,  the 
animal  is  deeper  behind  than  in  front.  2.  If  one  stands  in 
front  of  the  animal,  it  shows  thicker  through  from  side  to 
side  at  the  back  than  it  does  in  front.  3.  If  looked  down  upon 
the  body  is  thicker  below  than  it  is  above. 

1.  Jersey. — Jersey  cattle  are  more  largely  kept  in  America 


CATTLE  235 

than  any  other  dairy  breed.  The  Jersey  originated  in  the 
island  of  Jersey,  about  fourteen  miles  from  the  coast  of 
France.  It  is  believed  that  they  descended  from  the  native 
cattle  of  Brittany  and  Normandy.  Jerseys  have  been  bred 
pure  in  the  island  of  Jersey  for  two  centuries.  Since  1789 
a  law  in  the  island  has  prohibited  the  importation  of  any 
cattle  except  to  be  slaughtered.  Jersey  cattle  are  among  the 
smallest  of  the  dairy  breeds.  The  color  is  variable,  from 
light  yellow  to  black,  and  is  usually  described  as  fawn. 
The  nose  is  usually  dark-colored.  In  registering  Jerseys  the 
color  of  the  tongue  and  the  s#itfeli  must  be  given.  These  may 
be  either  white  or  black.  The  Jersey  is  a  great  butter  pro- 
ducer. She  gives  a  considerable  quantity  of  milk  and  this  is 
very  rich  in  butter-fat.  Butter-fat  is  the  very  small  globules 
of  fat  contained  in  the  milk,  whichj  when  it  stands,  rise  to  the 
top  and  form  the  cream.  It  is  very  common  for  a  Jersey  cow 
to  make  fourteen  pounds  and  more  of  butter  in  seven  days;  a 
few  have  made  twenty  pounds.  Jersey  milk  is  also  good  for 
cheese-making.  Many  competitive  tests  have  been  made  in 
which  Jerseys  have  competed  with  other  breeds  for  butter  and 
cheese  records,  and  in  most  cases  they  have  won.  Jer- 
sey cows  are  usually  gentle  and  easily  handled,  but  the  bulls 
are  often  vicious. 

Professor  Plumb  *  names  the  following  as  being  ten  of  the 
most  prominent  Jersey  families:  Signal,  Coomassie,  Euro- 
tas.  Tormentor,  St.  Lambert,  Golden  Lad,  Combination, 
Fontaine,  Oxford,  and  Landseer.  Jersey  cattle  often  sell  for 
very  high  prices,  sales  having  been  made  for  as  much  as 
$10,000  per  head,  while  $1,000  is  frequently  obtained  for 
imported  animals  for  breeding  and  show  purposes. 
*  Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals. 


236 


AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 


2.  Guernsey. — This  breed  originated  on  the  island  of 
Guernsey,  which  lies  near  Jersey.  Like  the  Jersey  breed,  the 
Guernsey  probably  descended  from  the  cattle  of  Normandy 
and  Brittany.    The  Guernseys  have  been  bred  pure  for  many 


49.      DOLLY   DIMPLE,    19144  ADV.    R. 

A  typical  Guernsey  cow.    Two-year-old  record — 14009  pounds  milk;  703  pounds 
butter-fat  in  one  year,  being  the  world's  record  for  age  of  all  breeds 


years  on  the  island  of  Guernsey.  No  foreign  cattle  can  be  im- 
ported into  the  island.  Guernsey  cattle  are  somewhat  larger 
than  Jerseys.  They  resemble  the  Jersey  very  much,  and  un- 
less one  is  familiar  with  them  he  is  apt  to  mistake  them  for 
Jerseys.  The  color  is  yellowish,  brownish,  or  reddish-fawn 
with  patches  of  white.  The  reddish-fawn  is  most  common. 
The  nose  is  usually  flesh-colored.    The  skin  is  a  richer  yellow 


CATTLE  237 

than  that  of  any  other  breed,  being  especially  so  inside  the 
ears  and  at  the  end  of  the  tail.  The  Guernsey  is  about  equal 
to  the  Jersey  in  the  production  of  butter.  Guernsey  butter 
is  a  very  rich  yellow  in  color.    Guernseys  are  not  very  com- 


50  .       HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN    COW,    AAGIE    CORNUCOPIA    PAULINE,    48426 

Champion  butter   cow  of   the   world  from  1904  to  1Q07.     Record — 659  pounds 
milk,  34  pounds  5.2  ounces  butter  in  7  days  at  the  age  of  4  years  11  months 

mon  as  yet  in  the  United  States,  but  seem  to  be  increasing  in 
popularity. 

3.  Holstein-Friesian. — ^This  is  a  Dutch  breed  of  cattle 
coming  from  the  northern  part  of  Holland,  where  it  has  been 
bred  pure  for  nearly  two  thousand  years.  The  name  is  de- 
rived from  two  provinces  in  Holland.  This  breed  is  found  in 
every  state  in  our  Union  and  is  especially  numerous  in  the 
dairy  districts  near  large  cities.    They  are  next  to  the  Jerseys 


238  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

in  point  of  number.  The  Holstein-Friesian  is  the  largest  of 
the  dairy  breeds,  being  almost  as  heavy  as  Shorthorns,  but  they 
are  not  so  beefy.  They  are  always  black  and  white  in  color 
in  America,  but  in  Holland  some  pure-bred  herds  are  red  and 
white.  The  calves  make  good  veal,  but  the  beef  of  mature 
animals  is  not  of  good  quality.  As  producers  of  large  quan- 
tities of  milk,  the  Holstein-Friesian  is  ahead  of  all  other 
breeds,  but  the  average  mill^  is  rather  low  in  per  cent,  of  but- 
ter-fat, being  about  three  per  cent.,  while  that  of  the  Jersey 
and  Guernsey  is  four  and  a  half  to  five  per  cent.  Many  cows 
have  given  from  20,000  to  30,000  pounds  of  milk  in  a  year, 
and  because  of  this  large  quantity  there  are  many  butter 
records  of  twenty  pounds  and  over  per  week.  The  butter-fat 
globules  are  small  and  do  not  Separate  from  milk  quickly 
upon  standing.  For  this  reason  the  milk  is  excellent  for  retail 
trade.  The  milk  is  also  used  largely  for  cheese  in  cheese- 
making  districts.  There  are  many  noted  families  of  Holstein- 
Friesians.  Plumb  mentions  the  following  prominent  ones: 
Aaggie,  Netherland,  Clothilde,  Johanna,  Pauline  Paul,  De 
Kol,  Schuiling,  and  Pietertje. 

4.  Ayrshire. — This  is  a  Scotch  dairy  breed  coming  from 
the  county  of  Ayr.  Its  origin  was  from  a  mixture  of  breeds 
followed  by  careful  selection.  The  Ayrshire  is  red,  brown,  or 
white,  or  a  mixture  of  these  colors.  They  are  somewhat  larger 
than  Jerseys  and  Guernseys.  In  milk  and  butter  yields  they 
compare  very  well  with  other  breeds.  Their  milk  is  espe- 
cially good  for  cheese-making.  The  calves  of  this  breed 
also  make  good  veal.  Ayrshires  are  hardy  and  do  well  on 
scant  pasturage.  In  America  they  are  found  mostly  in 
Ontario  and  Quebec,  and  in  New  York  and  the  New  Eng- 
land states. 


CATTLE 


239 


5.  Other  Dairy  Breeds. — The  Dutch  Belted  cattle  are  an- 
other Dutch  breed,  having  been  bred  pure  for  many  years  by 
the  aristocracy  of  Holland.  They  got  their  name  from  a  band 
of  white  which  encircles  the  barrel  back  of  the  shoulders  and 


51.   A  GROUP  OF  DUTCH  BELTED  CATTLE  IN  PASTURE 

in  front  of  the  hips.  The  remainder  of  the  body  is  black. 
They  are  not  so  large  as  the  Holstein-Friesians,  but  in  general 
resemble  them  in  characteristics.  There  are  few  of  this 
breed  in  America. 

The  Kerry  cattle  are  an  Irish  breed  and  the  Kerry  cow  is 
famous  as  the  **poor  man's  cow."  This  is  the  smallest  of 
dairy  breeds,  forty  inches  being  a  common  height.    The  color 


240  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

is  mostly  black  with  a  line  of  white  along  the  back  and  also 
under  the  belly.  The  Kerry  cow  is  a  wonderful  milk  pro- 
ducer for  her  size  and  the  small  amount  of  feed  which  she 
gets.    There  are  very  few  Kerries  in  the  United  States. 

The  French-Canadian  is  an  American  breed,  descended 
from  the  cattle  brought  by  the  first  French  settlers  in  Quebec. 
The  breed  very  much  resembles  the  Jersey.  The  color  is 
usually  black.  They  are  excellent  milk  producers  and  are 
very  hardy.  They  are  bred  almost  entirely  in  the  province 
of  Quebec. 

Dual-Purpose  Breeds. — By  a  dual-purpose  or  general- 
purpose  breed  is  meant  one  which  is  both  a  good  milk  pro- 
ducer and  a  good  beef  producer  There  is  quite  a  demand 
from  farmers  for  cattle  which  will  give  a  fair  quantity  of  milk 
and  will  also  produce  calves  which  sell  well  as  veals  or  will 
grow  into  good  beef  animals.  The  dual-purpose  type  is  not 
so  large  and  massive  as  the  beef  type  nor  so  lean  and  angular 
as  the  dairy  type.  There  are  several  breeds  classed  as  dual- 
purpose  breeds,  but  in  any  of  these  breeds  both  beef  and 
milking  types  are  to  be  found. 

1.  Shorthorn. — As  was  mentioned  on  page  229,  some  fam- 
ilies of  Shorthorns  are  noted  for  their  milk  production.  This 
is  especially  true  of  the  Bates  families.  The  Polled  Durham 
breeders  are  trying  to  make  that  breed  a  strictly  dual-purpose 
one. 

2.  Devon. — This  is  a  very  old  English  breed,  being 
spoken  of  by  the  earliest  writers.  Its  native  home  is  in  the 
counties  of  Devon  and  Somerset,  in  England.  The  Devons 
vary  in  size,  some  types  being  larger  than  others.  The  larger, 
coarser  types  are  usually  better  milk  producers  than  the 
smaller,  trimmer  types,  which  are  better  for  beef.     Devon 


CATTLE  241 

milk  ranks  with  Jersey  milk  in  quality  and  is  also  abund- 
ant in  quantity.  Devon  cows  fatten  fairly  well  and  produce 
beef  of  excellent  quality.  In  color,  they  are  usually  cherry 
red  with  no  white,  unless  it  be  on  the  udder.  The  horns  of 
the  cow  are  long  and  slender  and  turn  up  with  graceful  curves. 


52.       ENGLISH    SHORTHORN    COW,    TULIP   LEAF,    OWNED    BY    LORD 
ROTHSCHILD,    TRING   PARK,    ENGLAND 

Record — 10,502  pounds  of  milk  in  one  year  when  1 1  years  old. .  She  is  a  good  specimen 
of  the  dual-purpose  breeds 

The  bull's  horns  grow  out  at  right  angles  to  the  head  and  are 
stout  and  only  slightly  turned  up.  This  breed  is  found  mostly 
in  New  England  and  Ohio. 

3.  Red  Polled. — This  is  the  truest  dual-purpose  breed. 
It  originated  in  the  counties  of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk,  England. 
All  animals  are  polled,  and  solid  red  is  the  preferred  color, 
although  white  may  occur  on  the  switch,  udder,  or  belly. 
They  are  larger  than  Devons  but  smaller  than  Shorthorns, 


242  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

males  weighing  about  1,800  pounds  and  females  1,250  pounds. 
They  give  a  large  quantity  of  milk  of  fair  quality.  One  of 
their  faults  is  poorly  shaped  udders  and  extremely  large 
teats.  The  steers  fatten  well  and  the  cows,  after  they 
have  ceased  to  give  milk,  fatten  quickly.  The  beef  is  of 
very  good  quality.  The  Red  Polled  breed  is  not  numerous 
in  the  United  States,  but  is  becoming  more  and  more 
popular. 

4.  Brown  Swiss. — In  Switzerland  we  have  some  of  the 
oldest  records  of  cattle,  their  remains  being  found  in  the  de- 
bris of  the  Lake-dwellers.  There  are  two  distinct  breeds  in 
Switzerland  of  about  equal  importance.  One  of  these,  called 
the  Simmenthal,  is  cream  yellow  and  white  in  color.  Practi- 
cally none  of  this  breed  has  been  brought  to  America.  The 
other  breed  is  known  as  the  Brown  Swiss  and  a  few  herds  are 
to  be  found  in  the  United  States.  They  range  from  dark 
brown  to  light  brown  in  color,  shading  to  gray  along  the 
backbone.  The  udder  is  usually  white.  They  are  a  rather 
coarse-boned  and  rough-framed  cattle.  In  weight  they  are 
about  like  the  Red  Polled.  Both  breeds  of  Swiss  cattle  are 
famous  in  their  native  country  for  their  milk,  which  produces 
large  quantities  of  butter  and  cheese. 


CHAPTER  XXXII 

FARM  ANIMALS:    III.  SHEEP  AND  GOATS 

Sheep-raising  has  been  an  occupation  for  a  longer  time 
than  history  records.  In  early  times  sheep  were  raised 
more  for  their  wool  and  milk  than  for  their  flesh.  Wool  was 
made  into  cloth  in  Asia  at  least  2,000  years  before  Christ. 

Sheep  wild  by  nature  live  in  mountainous  regions  and  are 
still  found  in  mountainous  parts  of  both  the  Old  World 
and  the  New.  In  North  America  we  have  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains  the  Bighorn  and  the  Alaskan  sheep.  In  South 
America  we  find  the  Vicuna,  Llama,  and  Alpaca.  These  last 
are  closely  related  to  the  sheep.  All  our  domestic  sheep 
originated  in  the  Old  World,  but  it  is  not  known  whether 
they  are  descended  from  some  of  the  present  wild  sheep  or 
whether  they  came  from  a  race  of  sheep  now  extinct.  Sheep 
were  brought  to  America  by  the  earliest  colonists. 

The  various  breeds  of  sheep  are  usually  classed  as  fine- 
wooled,  medium-wooled,  or  coarse-wooled  sheep.  They  are 
also  often  classed  as  mutton  or  as  wool  breeds,  but  a  breed  good 
for  mutton  production  also  produces  wool  of  value,  so  it 
seems  better  to  classify  according  to  the  wool.  The  coarse- 
wooled  and  medium-wooled  breeds  are  known  as  the  mutton 
breeds.  The  essentials  for  a  mutton  sheep  are  the  same  as 
for  a  beef  animal,  namely,  a  square,  blocky  form  well  filled 
out  in  all  parts.    The  coarse-wooled  breeds  are  the  Leicester 

243 


244 


AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 


(pronounced  Les'ter),  the  Lincoln,  and  the  Cotswold.  Of 
these  the  Cotswold  is  the  most  important  in  the  United  States. 
The  Cotswold  sheep  originated  in  Gloucestershire,  Eng- 
land. The  name  is  a  combination  of  *^cots,"  meaning  sheds, 
and  "weald,"  or  "wold,"  meaning  naked,  hilly  ground.    The 


M'-- 

^ 

1 

H^i^ 

r^ 

^^P» 

yfp 

^ 

53- 


A    TYPICAL    COTSWOLD 


breed  has  been  much  improved  by  careful  breeding  and 
selection.  The  breed  is  one  of  the  largest,  being  equalled  in 
size  by  the  Lincoln  only.  The  rams  weigh  about  250  to  275 
pounds.  These  sheep  have  rather  long  legs,  large,  strong 
bodies,  and  a  long  wool  which  is  in  locks  more  or  less  curly. 
Several  locks  hang  over  the  forehead,  and  this  is  rather  a  dis- 
tinguishing mark.  The  face  is  white,  the  nose  Roman,  and 
there  are  no  horns. 


SHEEP  AND   GOATS  245 

The  Cotswold  is  a  good  wool  producer.  The  fleece  will 
average  ten  pounds  in  weight  and  the  staple  is  often  twelve  to 
fourteen  inches  in  length,  but  is  rather  coarse.  The  word 
sta'ple  refers  to  the  fibres  of  wool.  The  mutton  of  this  breed 
is  only  fair  in  quality,  the  fat  not  being  well  distributed 
through  the  lean  meat.  Lambs  less  than  twelve  months  old 
make  the  best  mutton. 

This  breed  is  widely  distributed,  but  the  total  number  is 
not  so  large  as  that  of  some  other  breeds.  In  America  the 
leading  flocks  are  in  Ohio,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and 
Ontario.  . 

The  Leicester  breed  comes  from  Leicestershire  in  central 
England.  It  was  one  of  the  first  breeds  to  be  improved. 
Robert  Bakewell  made  himself  famous  by  his  improvement 
of  it.  It  has  been  much  used  for  crossing  for  the  improve- 
ment of  other  breeds.  The  mutton  is  much  like  that  of  the 
Cotswold,  but  the  wool  has  a  much  finer  fibre  and  does  not 
lie  in  curls.  The  head  is  bare  of  wool  and  there  are  no  horns. 
While  this  breed  is  widely  distributed,  the  total  number  of 
animals  is  not  large. 

The  Lincoln  is  also  an  English  breed,  coming  from  the 
county  of  Lincoln.  It  is  the  largest  of  our  breeds  of  sheep. 
Rams  sometimes  weigh  400  pounds,  but  300  pounds  is  an 
average  weight.  The  wool  hangs  in  curls  somewhat  like  the 
fleece  of  the  Cotswold  and  there  is  a  short  forelock.  The  staple 
is  longer  than  that  of  any  other  breed,  being  reported  as  long 
as  twenty-one  inches.  The  average  weight  of  the  fleece  is 
about  fifteen  pounds.  The  mutton  is  much  the  same  as  that 
of  the  Cotswold.  The  breed  is  also  widely  distributed  but 
nowhere  very  numerous.  Rams  of  this  breed  are  being  exten- 
sively used  for  breeding  purposes  in  Argentina,  and  the  lambs 


246  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

are  sold  in  English  markets.    High  prices  have  been  realized 
for  rams  for  use  in  Argentina,  one  being  sold  for  $7,600. 

The  medium-wooled  breeds  are  represented  by  the  Shrop- 
shire,  Southdown,    Dorset,    Cheviot,    Hampshire,    Oxford, 


54.      A    SHROPSHIRE,    AN    EXCELLENT    SPECIMEN    OF    THE    MUTTON 
AND   WOOL  TYPE 

Note  the  blocky,  compact  form 

Tunis,  and  Suffolk.  The  Shropshires,  Southdowns,  Hamp- 
shires.  Oxfords,  and  Suffolks  are  known  as  the  Down  breeds. 
As  a  pure  breed,  the  Shropshire  is  not  very  old.  Its  native 
home  is  in  the  counties  of  Shropshire  and  Stafford,  England. 
It  is  said  that  the  original  Shropshire  was  horned,  black  or 
brown  faced,  produced  about  two  and  a  half  pounds  of  wool 
at  a  shearing,  and  dressed  about  forty  pounds  of  mutton  when 


SHEEP  AND   GOATS  247 

slaughtered.  Several  breeds  were  used  in  the  early  improve- 
ment of  Shropshire  sheep,  but  for  many  years  they  have  been 
bred  pure. 

The  face,  ears,  and  legs  of  Shropshires  are  usually  black  or 
dark  brown.  The  face  is  usually  almost  entirely  covered 
with  wool,  this  being  a  distinguishing  mark.  They  have  no 
horns.  Sheep  of  this  breed  are  above  medium  size,  rams 
averaging  about  225  pounds  and  ewes  160  pounds.  The 
wool  is  distributed  over  the  body  evenly  and  close.  The 
fleece  will  average  ten  to  twelve  pounds  in  weight,  and  is 
medium  fine  in  quality.  The  mutton  of  the  Shropshire  is 
excellent  in  quality  and  large  in  quantity. 

Although  Shropshires  were  not  imported  into  the  United 
States  until  about  1860,  they  are  now  probably  more  numer- 
ous than  any  other  breed.  Several  things  have  tended  to 
make  them  popular  with  farmers  and  sheep-raisers:  (1)  Their 
general-purpose  character,  being  good  producers  of  both 
wool  and  mutton;  (2)  the  ewes  often  give  birth  to  two  lambs, 
so  that  the  shepherd's  flock  increases  rapidly  in  number; 
(3)  they  are  useful  for  improving  native  sheep;  (4)  the  lambs 
mature  early,  that  is,  are  soon  ready  for  market. 

The  Southdown  originally  came  from  south-eastern  Eng- 
land. In  that  region  there  is  a  range  of  low,  chalky  hills  called 
the  South  Downs  and  from  these  the  breed  takes  its  name. 
The  improvement  of  the  breed  was  begun  long  ago.  Many 
English  noblemen  have  been  noted  as  breeders  of  Southdown 
sheep;  even  King  Edward  VII  has  a  fine  flock. 

The  Southdown  is  the  smallest  of  the  English  breeds  that 
have  been  brought  to  America,  rams  weighing  175  pounds  and 
ewes  135  pounds.  The  face,  ears,  and  legs  are  grayish- 
brown  or  reddish-brown,  always  lighter-colored  than  Shrop- 


248  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

shires.  The  face  is  not  so  completely  covered  with  wool,  nor 
is  that  on  the  forehead  and  top  of  the  head  so  long  as  in  the  case 
of  Shropshires.  The  body  is  rounded  and  plump.  The  wool  is 
rather  short  but  of  fine  quality.  Fleeces  average  about  seven 
pounds.  The  mutton  is  of  the  best  quality,  being  tender, 
juicy,  well-flavored,  and  fine-grained.  The  lambs  mature 
quickly  and  sell  well  on  the  market.  Southdowns  are  found 
everywhere,  but  their  number  is  not  so  large  as  that  of  Shrop- 
shires. 

The  county  of  Hampshire,  in  England,  is  the  native  home  of 
the  Hampshire  breed.  The  breed  has  been  developed  within 
the  last  century.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the  middle-wool 
breeds.  In  a  general  way  it  resembles  the  Shropshire,  but  is 
larger,  coarser-boned,  and  does  not  produce  so  much  wool, 
nor  is  it  of  such  good  quality.  The  head  is  larger  than  that 
of  the  Shropshire,  and  the  face  is  not  so  completely  covered 
with  wool.  The  face,  ears,  lips,  and  legs  are  dark  brown  or 
black  in  color.  The  nose  is  Roman  and  quite  prominent. 
The  mutton  is  excellent  in  quality,  but  smaller  in  quantity  in 
proportion  to  total  weight  than  in  the  Southdown  or  Shropshire 
breeds,  owing  to  the  larger  bones.  Hampshire  lambs  mature 
early  and  are  good  sellers.  This  breed  is  not  numerous  in 
the  United  States. 

The  Oxford  breed  of  sheep  is  of  rather  recent  origin.  It 
was  originated  in  the  county  of  Oxfordj  England,  by  the 
breeding  together  of  Cotswold  and  Hampshire  stock.  The 
breed  has  become  quite  popular,  owing  to  several  good  quali- 
ties. Of  these  its  large  size  is  most  prized.  It  is  the  largest  of 
the  middle-wool  breeds  and  almost  equals  the  coarse-wool 
breeds.  It  produces  a  heavy  weight  of  excellent  mutton  and 
shears  a  heavy  fleece  of  coarse  wool.    The  lambs  do  not  ma- 


SHEEP   AND   GOATS  249 

ture  quite  so  early  as  those  of  some  other  breeds,  but  become 
heavier.  The  Oxfords  are  widely  distributed  and  are  in- 
creasing in  numbers. 

The  Suffolk  sheep  is  scarcely  known  in  America.  Its  native 
home  is  in  the  counties  of  Suffolk,  Norfolk,  and  adjoining 
counties  in  England.  The  Suffolk  is  a  large  breed  very  much 
resembling  the  Hampshire.  The  head,  face,  ears,  and  legs 
are  black.  The  head  has  no  horns  and  the  wool  extends  only 
to  the  poll.  They  shear  a  good  fleece  and  the  mutton  i^  said 
to  be  excellent. 

Tunis  sheep  were  brought  to  America  from  Tunis,  Africa, 
in  1799.  Only  one  pair  survived  the  voyage,  and  Professor 
Shaw*  says  that  these  were  the  ancestors  of  all  the  Tunis  sheep 
now  in  America.  This  breed  averages  about  150  pounds  in 
weight.  The  color  varies,  but  is  usually  gray.  It  is  never  pure 
white.  The  mutton  is  excellent  and  the  fleece  of  good  qual- 
ity. The  ewes  are  quite  prolific,  often  producing  two  lambs 
at  a  time  and  frequently  bearing  young  twice  a  year.  There 
are  very  few  Tunis  sheep  in  America,  and  those  principally 
in  Indiana,  Ohio,  and  South  Carolina. 

The  Dorset  Horn  is  an  English  breed  of  sheep  not  well 
known  in  America.  Both  the  ram  and  ewe  have  horns;  those 
of  the  ram  curve  spirally,  while  those  of  the  ewe  curve  out- 
ward, downward,  and  forward.  The  face,  legs,  and  hoofs  are 
white  and  there  is  a  short  foretop.  In  mutton  and  wool 
production  they  compare  favorably  with  other  breeds.  Their 
main  strong  point  is  for  the  production  of  early  market  lambs. 
The  ewes  will  breed  at  almost  any  season  of  the  year  and  the 
grower  can  have  lambs  for  market  at  any  time. 

The  border-land  between  England  and  Scotland  in  the 
*  Study  of  Breeds,  p.  211. 


250 


AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 


vicinity  of  the  Cheviot  Hills  is  the  native  h<mie  of  the  Cheviot 
breed  of  sheep.  No  one  knows  of  their  earliest  origin.  This 
breed  is  suited  to  hilly  regions  and  is  quite  hardy,  enduring 
well  severe  weather.  It  is  about  as  large  as  the  Shropshire. 
The  nostrils,  lips,  and  hoofs  are  black;  the  head,  ears,  and 
legs  white.    The  wool  is  of  medium  quality  and  ordinary  in 


55- 


DORSET   HORN   SHEEP 


quantity,  and  the  mutton  is  good  in  quality.  The  number  of 
Cheviots  in  the  United  States  is  not  large,  the  largest  number 
being  in  Indiana  and  New  York. 

The  various  Merino  breeds  represent  the  fine-wooled  sheep. 
The  Merino  stands  in  about  the  same  relation  to  other  breeds 
of  sheep  as  a  dairy  breed  of  cattle  does  to  other  breeds.  The 
Merino  is  mainly  a  wool  producing  sheep.  The  fibre  of  its 
wool  is  the  finest  of  all  wools.  The  mutton  of  Merino  breeds 
is  not  high  grade  either  in  quality  or  quantity.    The  fleece 


SHEEP   AND   GOATS  251 

of  all  Merinos  is  very  oily,  owing  to  the  large  quantity  of 
yolky  an  oily  secretion  which  comes  from  glands  located  at 
the  root  of  the  wool  fibre.  This  oil  passes  along  the  wool 
fibre  to  its  end,  where  it  catches  a  great  deal  of  dust  and  dirt 
and  is  also  darkened  in  color  by  the  sun.  This  explains  why 
Merino  sheep  always  look  so  dirty.  Other  breeds  of  sheep  also 
have  yolk  in  their  wool,  but  it  is  usually  small  in  quantity. 
The  form  of  the  Merino  is  not  so  plump,  square,  and  blocky 
as  that  of  the  breeds  already  described.  Its  neck  and  legs 
have  the  appearance  of  being  long.  Owing  to  a  thin  chest, 
the  legs  often  stand  too  close  together  in  front.  The  skin  is 
loose  and  is  gathered  into  large  wrinkles  or  folds,  especially 
on  the  neck.  Si 

All  Merino  breeds  originated  in  Spain.  Here  sheep-raising 
was  an  important  industry  for  many  centuries,  but  is  not  so 
any  more.  Nothing  is  known  of  the  beginning  of  sheep- 
husbandry  in  Spain.  There  were  many  types  of  Merinos 
there,  and  from  them  the  various  Merino  breeds  throughout 
the  world  have  been  developed.  In  the  United  States  we  have 
the  American  Merino  and  the  Rambouillet 

The  American  Merino  was  developed  from  the  Spanish 
breeds.  Merinos  were  first  brought  to  the  United  States 
from  Spain  about  1793.  Since  that  time  many  Merinos  have 
been  imported  from  Spain,  and  much  has  been  done  by  selec- 
tion and  careful  feeding  to  improve  the  breed.  The  American 
Merino  has  heavy  folds  of  skin  all  over  its  body  except  on  the 
back.  The  rams  have  horns,  but  the  ewes  have  none.  The 
entire  body  and  legs  are  covered  with  wool.  The  nose,  ears, 
and  lower  part  of  the  head  are  not  covered  with  wool.  The 
quantity  of  yolk,  or  oil,  in  the  wool  is  so  great  that  when 
fleeces  are  scoured  a  very  large  shrinkage  in  weight,  often  as 


252 


AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 


much  as  fifty  per  cent,  or  more,  takes  place.  Merinos  are  not 
large,  rams  weighing  130  pounds  or  more  and  ewes  about  120 
pounds.  Many  American  Merinos  shear  a  fleece  which  is 
twenty-five  per  cent,  or  more  of  the  total  weight  of  the  animal. 
The  fibre  is  quite  fine,  that  of  the  ewes  being  finer  than  that 

of  the  rams.  American 
Merino  lambs  mature 
slowly  and  the  mutton  is 
poor  in  quality. 

From  the  American 
Merino  have  been  de- 
veloped several  types  or 
families.  The  most  noted 
of  these  is  the  Delaine, 
so  called  because  its 
wool  is  of  the  type  for- 
merly used  for  making  a 
kind  of  cloth  known  as 
delaine.  There  are  sev- 
eral families  of  Delaine, 
among  which  are  the 
Dickinson  Delaine,  Na- 
tional Delaine,  Victor- 
Beall  Delaine,  Black-Top  Spanish,  and  Improved  Black- 
Top  Merino.  The  Delaines  have  fewer  wrinkles  than  the 
American  Merino,  most  of  them  being  on  the  neck  and 
lower  part  of  the  belly.  The  Delaine  is  somewhat  larger 
than  the  American  Merino  and  is  somewhat  better  for  mutton. 
The  Ramhouillet  (Ram'boo  ya^)  Merino  comes  from  France 
where  it  was  developed  from  stock  taken  from  Spain.  It  has 
also  been  called  the  French  Merino,  but  the  name  Ram- 


A   RAMBOUILLET   SHEEP 


Notice  that  the  form  is  less    smooth   and 
compact  than  in  the  mutton  type 


SHEEP  AND   GOATS 


253 


bouillet  is  now  more  used.  This  breed  is  much  larger  than 
the  other  Merino  breeds  and  has  fewer  wrinkles,  some  speci- 
mens having  scarcely  any  except  on  the  neck.  The  nose  and 
ears  are  covered  with  fine  wool.  The  legs  are  clothed  with 
wool  to  the  toes.    The  fleece  is  usually  not  so  oily  as  that  of 


57.      WENSLEYDALE   EWES   IN   PASTURE 
This  is  becoming  a  very  popular  breed  in  England 

other  Merinos,  owing  to  a  somewhat  smaller  amount  of  oil. 
The  rams  have  horns,  but  the  ewes  are  hornless.  The  Ram- 
bouillet  is  a  fair  mutton  producer  and  the  lambs  mature  fairly 
early.  The  breed  is  quite  hardy  and  is  being  much  used 
on  the  western  ranges. 

Other  breeds  of  sheep  scarcely  known  in  America  are:  (1) 
The  Kent  or  Romney  Marsh,  a  breed  adapted  to  the  low, 


254  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

swampy  regions  of  south-eastern  England;  (2)  The  Black- 
Faced  Highland,  a  breed  from  Scotland,  adapted  to  moun- 
tainous regions;  and  (3)  the  Wensleydales,  a  breed  from  the 
north  of  England. 

Goats. — ^The  raising  of  goats  is  becoming  more  and  more 
general  in  the  United  States,  and  this  is  particularly  true 


ANGORA   GOATS 


where  the  land  is  too  rough  for  grain-raising.  There  are  two 
main  classes  of  goats;  namely,  those  which  are  raised  princi- 
pally for  their  fleece  and  those  raised  for  their  milk.  Only  the 
first  class  is  raised  to  any  extent  in  the  United  States. 

The  Angora  goat  is  the  one  raised  for  its  fleece,  which  is 
called  mohair.  Mohair  is  coarser  than  sheep's  wool,  and  is 
longer  and  much  stronger.    Angora  goats  were  first  brought 


SHEEP   AND   GOATS  255 

to  America  from  Turkey  in  1849.  Perhaps  the  original  home 
of  the  Angora  is  in  central  Asia.  The  goat  is  smaller  than 
the  average  sheep,  weighing  60  to  100  pounds.  The  mohair 
grows  eight  to  ten  inches  long,  or  more,  in  a  year  and  hangs 
in  curls  all  over  the  body.  The  fleece  is  shed  in  the  spring  if 
it  is  not  shorn.  Underneath  the  mohair  is  a  short  coat  of  hair 
called  kemp.  Sometimes  it  becomes  three  or  four  inches 
long  and  gets  mixed  with  the  mohair  in  shearing.  Kemp  in 
the  mohair  spoils  the  sale.  Angora  mutton,  especially  that 
from  young  Angoras,  is  said  to  be  very  good.  Sometimes, 
however,  it  has  a  musky  odor.  It  is  not  often  found  in  the 
market  as  yet.  Angoras  are  very  useful  on  brushy  land,  as  they 
seem  to  prefer  twigs  and  leaves  to  grass.  A  flock  of  Angoras 
soon  clean  a  piece  of  land  of  all  brush  and  small  trees.  An- 
goras are  found  in  almost  every  state  in  the  Union,  but  the 
largest  flocks  are  in  New  Mexico  and  Texas. 

The  use  of  goats  for  milch  animals  is  very  old.  The  oldest 
records  make  mention  of  their  use.  The  milk  of  the  goat  is 
quite  white  in  color.  The  flavor  is  sometimes  musky,  but  when 
the  goats  are  kept  in  clean  quarters  and  the  females  separate 
from  the  males,  there  is  no  unpleasant  odor. 

There  are  several  breeds  of  milch  goats,  but  none  has 
become  common  in  America.  The  common  goat  is  more 
frequently  found  than  any  other  and  it  is  not  a  famous  milk 
producer.  Among  the  best  breeds  for  milk  are:  (1)  the  Mal- 
tese from  the  island  of  Malta ;  (2)  the  Toggenburg  and  Saanen 
from  Switzerland;  and  (3)  the  Nubian  goat  found  in  Nubia, 
Egypt,  and  South  Africa.  When  carefully  cared  for  the 
does  give  milk  for  several  months,  about  five  months  being 
the  average.  The  amount  of  milk  given  varies  greatly  with 
the  breed  and  with  individuals.     The  Nubian  seems  to  be  the 


256  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

largest  milk  producer,  some  of  the  does  giving  as  much  as  ten 
or  twelve  quarts  per  day.  Other  breeds  give  four  to  six 
quarts,  and  three  to  four  quarts  per  day  is  about  an  average 
for  all  the  milch  breeds. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 
FARM  ANIMALS:   IV.  SWINE 

Swine. — Our  domestic  swine  have  been  developed  from 
the  wild  hogs  of  Europe  and  Asia.  There  are  two  species  of 
these,  but  they  are  not  far  different.  Wild  hogs  have  been 
known  since  the  beginning  of  history.  Hunting  the  wild 
boar  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  sports  and  is  still  continued  in 
Europe.  A  kind  of  wild  pig  called  the  peccary  is  found  in 
America,  ranging  from  Arkansas,  Texas,  and  Mexico  to  Pata- 
gonia. The  change  from  the  wild  state  to  a  domestic  one 
has  made  a  great  change  in  swine.  The  wild  hog  requires 
three  or  four  years  to  become  fully  grown,  while  the  tame 
hog  is  fully  developed  in  half  the  time.  The  wild  hog  never 
became  very  fat,  but  our  present-day  pigs  may  become  exces- 
sively fat  at  an  early  age.  Our  domestic  pigs  are  slow  in 
action  and  rarely  ferocious,  while  the  wild  hog  is  quick, 
active,  and  very  fierce. 

The  various  breeds  of  hogs  have  been  classified  in  three 
ways:  (1)  red,  white,  and  black  breeds;  (2)  large,  medium, 
and  small  breeds;  (3)  lard  and  bacon  breeds.  We  shall  use 
the  latter  classification.  The  lard  or  fat  type  of  hog  has  short 
legs,  compact,  blocky  body,  with  short  sides,  quite  wide  on 
the  back,  short  neck,  small  head,  large  hams  and  shoulders. 
There  is  much  fat  formed  under  the  skin  and  around  the 
kidneys.  The  large  layer  of  fat  formed  around  the  kidneys  is 
called  leaj  lard  and  is  the  best  in  quality.    The  short  sides  are 

257 


258 


AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 


almost  a  mass  of  fat  with  very  little  lean  meat.  It  is  the  sides 
when  cured  that  produce  the  breakfast  bacon.  The  lard  type 
of  hog  does  not  give  the  best  breakfast  bacon  because  of  the 
large  quantity  of  fat  and  small  amount  of  lean.  The  baxion 
type  of  hog  is  almost  the  opposite  of  the  lard  type.    It  is  long- 


59.       A   TYPICAL   BERKSHIRE 
By  courtesy  0}  A.  J.  Lovejoy  &  Son,  Roscoe,  III. 

legged,  narrow  on  the  back,  rather  small  in  the  shoulders  and 
hams,  long  and  deep  in  the  sides,  has  a  large,  coarse  head,  and 
rather  long  neck.  The  bacon  type  never  gets  so  fat  and  lub- 
berly as  the  lard  type.  The  long,  deep  sides  have  a  good 
quantity  of  lean  flesh  mixed  with  the  fat,  and  this  produces  the 
delicious  bacon  of  which  most  persons  are  very  fond. 


SWINE  259 

The  Lard  Type. — The  Berkshire. — This  is  an  English 
breed  from  the  counties  of  Berkshire  and  Wilts.  In  its  early 
improvement  Chinese,  Siamese,  and  Neapolitan  breeds  were 
used,  but  later  improvements  were  mainly  by  careful  selec- 
tion. The  Berkshire  is  one  of  the  larger  breeds.  Young  pigs 
at  six  months  old  may  easily  be  made  to  weigh  180  pounds  or 
more.  The  color  is  black,  with  "six  white  points";  namely, 
white  in  the  face,  white  on  the  tail,  and  four  white  feet.  There 
are  sometimes  other  white  marks,  but  the  six  mentioned  are 
almost  always  present.  The  earlier  Berkshires  were  often 
sandy  or  even  red  in  color.  The  Berkshire  usually  carries  its 
ears  erect,  and  this  helps  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Poland- 
China  whose  ears  always  droop  more  or  less.  The  pork  of 
the  Berkshire  is  superior.  A  large  proportion  of  the  flesh 
is  lean  and  the  fat  is  well  intermingled.  This  breed  can 
be  made  to  pass  for  a  bacon  type  when  properly  fed. 
Berkshires  have  been  largely  used  in  improving  other  breeds 
and  in  grading  up  the  common  breeds.  The  Berkshire 
is  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  climate,  but  is  best  adapted 
to  temperate  regions.  It  is  probably  more  widely  distributed 
in  the  United  States  than  any  other  breed.  Large  prices  have 
been  paid  for  breeding  stock  of  this  breed,  boars  often  selling 
for  $1,000  or  more. 

Poland-China. — The  Poland-China  is  an  American  breed 
originating  in  Butler  and  Warren  Counties,  Ohio.  It  was 
developed  from  a  mixture  of  several  local  breeds.  These 
breeds  were  the  Russian,  Byfield,  Big  China,  Irish  Grazier, 
and  Berkshire,  and  probably  some  others,  but  since  1845  it 
has  been  pure.  The  breed  was  mostly  white  in  color  until 
the  Berkshire  blood  was  introduced,  after  which  black  with 
white  in  the  face,  on  the  tail,  and  white  feet  became  the 


260 


AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 


common  color.  White  spots  also  often  occur  on  various 
parts  of  the  body.  The  origin  of  the  name  Poland-China  can- 
not be  satisfactorily  accounted  for.  Poland-Chinas  are  not 
quite  so  large  as  Berkshires,  but  the  pigs  will  mature  earlier. 
The  pork  is  much  criticised  because  of  the  large  amount  of 


60.       NORA   P.,    160,484,    A   TYPICAL   POLAND-CHINA 

Owned  by  Purdue  University 

Photo  by  C.  N.  Amett,  Purdue  University 


fat. 


This  breed  seems  to  be  well  adapted  to  crossing  on 
common  sows.  More  grade  Poland-Chinas  than  any  other  are 
brought  to  the  Chicago  market.  By  cross-breeding  is  meant 
the  mating  of  a  male  of  one  breed  with  a  female  of  a  different 
breed.  The  Poland-China  breed  is  confined  largely  to  the 
Mississippi  Valley.  It  is  scarcely  known  in  foreign  countries. 
Larger  prices  have  been  paid  for  breeding  stock  of  this  breed 
than  for  any  other.    Poland-Chinas  can  be  distinguished  from 


SWINE  261 

Berkshires  mainly  by  their  drooping  ears,  smaller  and  less 
turned  up  noses. 

Duroc-Jersey. — This  is  also  a  breed  of  American  origin. 
As  to  its  beginning,  breeders  do  not  agree,  but  it  is  believed 
that  the  Duroc-Jersey  is  the  result  of  the  mingling  of  several 
red  breeds  of  hogs.  Fifty  years  ago  there  were  several  red 
breeds,  among  which  were:  (1)  the  Guinea  breed,  introduced 
from  Africa;  (2)  the  Portuguese,  red  hogs  imported  from 
Portugal  by  Daniel  Webster;  (3)  Spanish  red  pigs,  imported 
from  Spain  by  Henry  Clay;  (4)  Jersey  Reds,  a  breed  common 
in  New  Jersey;  (5)  Duroc,  a  red  breed  founded  in  Saratoga 
County,  New  York;  and  (6)  Red  Berkshires,  in  Connecticut. 
It  is  probable  that  the  Durocs,  Jersey  Reds,  and  Red  Berk- 
shires had  most  to  do  with  the  origin  of  the  present  breed. 

Duroc- Jerseys  have  much  the  same  build  as  the  Poland-Chi- 
nas. They  are  broad-backed,  have  rather  small  heads,  large, 
drooping  ears,  heavy  shoulders  and  hams,  and  are  rather 
coarse-boned.  The  color  is  always  red  with  varying  shades. 
In  size  they  are  between  the  Berkshire  and  Poland-China,  and 
often  equal  the  Berkshire.  Duroc-Jersey  pigs  mature  early 
and  sell  well  on  the  market.  The  pork  is  of  good  quality, 
but  perhaps  not  quite  so  good  as  that  of  the  Berkshire.  The 
breed  is  confined  mainly  to  the  central  states  in  the  corn-belt, 
but  is  rapidly  growing  in  favor  everywhere,  owing  to  its  hardi- 
ness, early  maturing  qualities,  and  the  large  litters  produced. 

Chester  White. — The  Chester  White  is  another  Amer- 
ican breed,  originating  in  Chester  County,  Pennsylvania. 
White  hogs  had  been  raised  there  since  the  time  of  the 
earliest  colonists,  and  when  their  improvement  began  it 
was  natural  to  give  the  name  of  the  county  to  the  breed. 
Perhaps  more  has  been  done  in  Ohio  to  improve  the  breed 


262  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

than  elsewhere.  The  Ohio  Improved  Chester  (O.  I.  C.) 
Whites  are  from  this  source.  The  Chester  White  is  one  of 
the  largest  breeds.  Before  improvement  was  carried  to  its 
present  perfection,  animals  weighing  1,000  pounds  were  not 
uncommon.  At  present  mature  animals  weigh  450  to  600 
pounds.  This  breed  is  one  of  the  most  profitable  to  raise, 
since  it  makes  large  gains  on  a  small  amount  of  feed.    The 


6l.      STARK-ADVANCE,    23,477 
Chester  White 

pork  is  of  fair  quality,  containing  rather  too  much  fat  for  the 
lean„  In  color  this  breed,  of  course,  is  white,  but  sometimes 
there  are  black  spots  on  the  skin  under  the  hairo  The  ears 
are  large  and  drooping,  the  back  broad,  the  body  deep,  and 
the  legs  short.  The  breed  is  widely  distributed,  especially  in 
the  states  north  of  the  latitude  of  the  Ohio  River,  and  is 
popular  on  account  of  its  early  maturing  qualities,  good  size, 
and  prolificacy. 

Cheshire,— This  breed   is  also  American,  originating  in 


SWINE  263 

Jefferson  County,  New  York.  It  is  a  rather  new  breed  and  is 
little  known  except  in  New  York  and  New  England.  It  is 
medium  in  size,  of  white  color,  has  small,  pointed,  and  erect 
ears,  a  long  body  and  rather  long  legs.  The  pork  is  said  to 
be  of  fine  quality,  possessing  a  large  proportion  of  lean 
which  makes  it  rather  a  bacon  type. 

Victoria. — This  is  still  another  American  breed  and  had 
two  distinct  places  of  origin.  One  was  in  New  York  where 
Col.  F.  D.  Curtis  was  the  originator.  His  breed  is  no  longer 
bred  pure.  The  other  place  of  origin  was  in  Lake  County, 
Indiana,  where  Mr.  Geo.  F.  Davis  was  the  originator, 
Mr.  Davis  started  the  breed  by  breeding  together  Poland- 
Chinas,  Berkshires,  Chester  Whites,  and  Suffolks  and  then 
making  careful  selections.  This  work  was  begun  about 
1870.  The  breed  is  too  young  to  have  a  well-established 
standing,  but  it  has  been  successfully  exhibited  at  many  fairs 
and  at  the  Chicago  Fat  Stock  Show.  Victorias  are  about  the 
size  of  Poland-Chinas,  white  in  color,  with  occasional  black 
spots  on  the  skin.  The  pork  is  of  good  quality.  One  advan- 
tage claimed  for  the  breed  is  that  it  is  less  liable  to  skin  dis- 
eases than  other  breeds  of  white  hogs.  It  is  confined  princi- 
pally to  Indiana,  Ohio,  and  Illinois. 

Essex. — This  breed  is  from  the  county  of  Essex,  England. 
It  is  one  of  the  smaller  breeds  and  is  not  well  known  in 
the  United  States.  It  is  totally  black,  the  ears  are  short  and 
erect,  the  body  short  and  chunky,  the  back  rather  broad  and 
the  legs  rather  short.  The  pigs  mature  early  and  can  be  fat- 
tened at  almost  any  time.  The  pork  is  of  good  quality  but 
has  rather  too  much  fat.  Essex  swine  are  particularly  adapted 
to  keeping  in  pens  and  small  lots. 

Small  Yorkshire. — This  is  also  an  English  breed  and  one 


264  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

of  the  smallest  in  size.  It  is  white,  short,  and  thick,  has  a 
small  head,  a  face  so  much  dished  that  the  nose  turns  up,  and 
short,  erect  ears.  Small  Yorkshires  mature  very  early  and 
are  ready  for  market  at  almost  any  age.  The  pork  is  tender 
and  juicy  but  has  too  much  fat.  The  breed  is  not  well  known 
in  the  United  States. 

Suffolk. — This  breed  is  also  of  English  origin  and  is  prob- 
ably only  a  variation  from  the  Small  Yorkshire,  at  least  the 
two  have  a  very  close  resemblance.  In  England  there  is  a 
breed  of  black  swine  which  is  called  the  Suffolk,  but  in 
America  the  breed  is  white  in  color.  There  are  but  few 
herds  in  the  United  States. 

The  Bacon  Type. — Large  Yorkshire. — It  is  probable  that 
this  breed  has  descended  from  the  original  English  stock. 
Other  breeds  have  been  little  used  in  its  improvement.  The 
Yorkshire  is  one  of  the  largest  breeds,  mature  animals  often 
weighing  1,000  pounds.  The  head  is  long  with  a  very  long 
snout,  and  large  and  somewhat  drooping  ears,  the  back  is  not 
very  wide,  the  sides  rather  long  and  deep,  legs  long,  and  hams 
and  shoulders  neat  and  light.  The  color  is  entirely  white. 
Yorkshires  do  not  get  their  growth  so  early  as  most  of  the 
fat  breeds,  but  pigs  may  be  marketed  in  good  form  at  six  to 
nine  months.  However,  they  never  become  very  fat.  The 
pork  is  excellent,  having  a  large  percentage  of  lean  meat,  just 
the  kind  demanded  by  the  English  market.  For  bacon  pro- 
duction this  breed  is  growing  in  popularity,  although  in  the 
corn-belt  farmers  mostly  prefer  the  lard  type  of  hog.  The 
Large  Yorkshire  is  not  yet  very  common  in  the  United  States, 
but  is  numerous  in  Canada.  There  is  a  variation  of  this 
breed  in  England  called  the  Middle  White  Yorkshire. 

Tamworth. — This  breed  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  oldest  and 


SWINE  265 

purest  breeds  in  England.  Its  improvement  has  been  almost 
entirely  by  careful  selection.  The  Tamworth  equals  the 
Large  Yorkshire  in  size.  It  is  distinctly  of  the  bacon  type 
and  the  pork  is  excellent,  but  the  Yorkshire  seems  to  be 
more  popular^  The  Tamworth  is  wholly  red  in  color.  The 
head,  body,  and  legs  are  long.  The  pigs,  as  a  rule,  do  not 
mature  as  quickly  as  those  of  other  breeds.    Both  the  Tam- 


62.       SUMMER    HILL   COLSTON    ECLIPSE    2nD,    4,232 
The  large  Yorkshire,  a  type  of  the  bacon  breeds.     Note  the  long  deep  sides 

worth  and  Large  Yorkshire  are  noted  for  their  prolificacy, 
litters  of  ten  and  more  being  very  common.  There  are  many 
herds  of  Tamworth  hogs  in  America,  especially  west  of  the 
Mississippi. 

Hampshire. — The  origin  of  this  breed  is  not  certainly 
known,  but  it  is  probably  English.  The  breed  is  mainly  raised 
in  Kentucky.  It  is  of  the  bacon  type  and  the  pork  is  excel- 
lent. The  color  is  black  with  a  belt  of  white  encircling  the 
body  just  back  of  and  including  the  front  legs.  Some  animals 
are  entirely  black.    The  Hampshire  is  medium  in  size. 


266  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

Chinese  and  Neapolitan  Swine. — These  breeds  are  not 
found  in  this  country  at  the  present  time.  Years  ago  they 
were  more  or  less  used  in  improving  the  other  breeds,  both  in 
England  and  in  America.  Both  breeds  were  rather  small  in 
size.  The  Neapolitan  was  slate  or  bluish  plum-colored.  The 
Chinese  was  white  in  color,  the  back  swayed,  and  the  legs 
short. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 
THE  BREEDING  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

Selecting  the  Animals. — Almost  every  farmer  keeps  some 
animals,  and  in  almost  every  case  he  raises  some  young  ani- 
mals either  to  take  the  place  of  the  older  ones  or  to  sell. 
The  growing  of  young  stock  either  for  home  use  or  for  mar- 
ket is  the  purpose  in  stock-breeding. 

When  one  begins  to  raise  young  animals  he  should  have 
mature  animals  with  which  to  begin.  These  are  his  founda- 
tion stock.  The  male  is  called  the  sire,  the  female,  the  dam. 
The  choice  of  foundation  stock  is  not  always  wisely  made. 
It  is  desirable  that  it  should  consist  of  animals  of  as  good 
breeding  as  possible.  They  should  also  be  of  good  form 
and  appearance,  and  be  suited  to  the  purpose  of  the  breeder. 
Well-bred  animals  should  be  chosen  for  foundation  stock  for 
at  least  three  reasons:  1.  The  offspring  will  bring  better 
prices  because  they  look  better,  and,  if  sold  for  slaughter, 
will  dress  out  a  larger  percentage  of  meat  than  animals  of 
poor  breeding.  2.  The  offspring  will  mature  more  quickly 
than  those  of  animals  of  poor  breeding.  3.  Well-bred  ani- 
mals eat  less  food  in  proportion  to  the  gains  they  make. 

The  term  well-bred  is  used  in  two  ways:  (1)  when  an  ani- 
mal has  a  large  percentage  of  pure  blood  and  is  of  superior 
quality;  (2)  when  the  animal  has  a  long  ancestry  of  pure 
blood  and  excellent  quality.     It  is  pure-bred  when  its  dam 

267 


268  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

and  sire  are  free  from  mixture  with  other  breeds.  For  exam- 
ple, a  Shorthorn  calf  is  pure-bred  if  its  dam  and  sire  were 
both  pure  Shorthorns,  that  is,  had  no  Angus  or  Hereford  or 
Red  Polled  blood,  or  the  blood  of  any  other  breed,  in  them. 
The  terms  full  blood  and  thoroughbred  are  not  good  terms 
to  use  when  speaking  of  animals  of  pure  breeding.  An  ani- 
mal is  called  a  grade  when  only  one  of  its  parents  has  been 
pure-bred.  When  both  dam  and  sire  are  of  mixed  breeding 
the  offspring  is  a  scrub  or  native.  When  two  animals  of  pure 
blood  but  of  different  breed  are  bred  together  the  offspring 
is  a  cross. 

The  choice  of  a  sire  is  more  important  than  the  choice  of  a 
dam,  because  he  is  used  for  mating  to  all  the  females  of  the 
herd.  It  is  a  common  saying  that  the  sire  is  half  of  the  herd. 
This  is  true  because  each  offspring  is  influenced  in  half  or 
more  of  its  qualities  by  the  characteristics  of  the  sire.  When 
a  breeder  uses  a  pure-bred  male  with  females  of  impure  breed- 
ing, with  the  purpose  of  improving  his  stock,  he  is  said  to  be 
grading  up  his  herd.  If  a  pure-bred  male  is  used  again  with 
the  females  of  this  offspring,  the  improvement  will  be  further 
increased  in  the  second  lot  of  offspring,  and  the  grades  be- 
come more  nearly  pure-bred.  If  a  scrub  female  is  mated  to  a 
pure-bred  male  the  offspring  is  a  half  blood.  If  this  half 
blood  be  a  female  and  be  mated  to  a  pure-bred  male  the  off- 
spring will  be  a  three-quarter  blood,  for  the  offspring  will  de- 
rive one  half  of  its  quality  from  the  male,  which  is  pure,  and 
the  other  half  will  come  from  the  female,  one-half  of  which 
is  pure;  that  is,  there  is  one-fourth  of  pure  blood  derived 
from  the  dam.  One-fourth  and  one-half  are  three-quarters, 
hence  the  offspring  from  the  half-blood  female  and  the  pure- 
blood  male  is  three-quarters  pure.    A  third  such  cross  will 


THE   BREEDING   OF   LIVE   STOCK  269 

give  an  animal  which  is  seven-eighths  pure,  a  fourth  cross  an 
animal  fifteen-sixteenths  pure,  and  so  on. 

By  following  out  the  foregoing  principles  it  is  clear  that  in 
a  very  few  generations  the  offspring  will  have  a  very  small 
fraction  of  the  original  scrub  blood  in  it.  But  according  to 
the  rules  of  live-stock  record  associations  in  the  United  States 
animals  of  such  parentage  can  never  be  registered  as  of  pure 
blood.  If  one  wishes  to  have  pure-bred  animals  there  are 
now  so  many  such  animals  to  be  had  at  reasonable  prices 
that  it  is  not  advisable  to  go  through  the  long  process  of 
grading  up  to  get  them.  However,  the  use  of  pure-bred  males 
is  always  to  be  advised  for  grading  up. 

When  one  purchases  pure-bred  animals  for  starting  a  herd 
he  should  give  some  attention  to  their  pedigrees.  A  pedigree 
is  a  statement  of  the  ancestors  of  an  animal.  It  gives  the  name 
of  the  animal  and  its  herd-book  number,  a  description  of  its 
color,  tells  its  sex,  the  name  of  its  owner  and  breeder,  and  the 
date  of  its  birth.  Then  follow  the  names  of  its  sire  and  dam, 
with  their  herd-book  numbers,  and  sometimes  the  grand-sires 
and  grand-dams,  running  back  several  generations.  One  who 
is  purchasing  stock  with  pedigrees  should  seek  to  know  some- 
thing about  the  individual  quality  of  the  animals  in  the  an- 
cestry, for  while  they  may  have  been  pure-bred  they  may  also 
have  been  poor  specimens  of  the  breed.  This  is  especially 
true  of  dairy  animals.  A  dairy  cow  may  be  of  the  purest 
breeding  and  yet  be  a  poor  producer  of  milk  and  butter-fat. 

In  selecting  foundation  stock  it  is  best  to  choose  mature 
animals  or  at  least  animals  which  have  already  produced 
young.  The  mature  animal  has  its  form  fully  developed,  so 
that  there  is  less  danger  of  getting  an  animal  of  poor  form. 
If  a  sire  has  already  produced  progeny  one  can  form  some 


270  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

idea  of  his  value  as  a  breeder.  Likewise,  we  can  know  some- 
thing of  the  quality  of  the  dam.  Young  and  untried  animals 
may  prove  a  disappointment.  However,  it  is  not  advisable  to 
select  animals  too  old,  for  if  they  have  gone  past  their  prime 
their  offspring  may  not  have  the  strength  and  vitality  that  it 
should.  Moreover,  old  animals  cannot  be  used  very  long,  so 
that  the  herd  will  not  increase  very  much  from  their  blood. 

It  is  also  desirable  that  animals  used  for  breeding  should 
be  in  good  health  and  free  from  defects  in  body.  Animals 
suffering  from  disease  are  likely  to  produce  weak,  puny,  and 
undersized  offspring.  Moreover,  animals  having  defects  in 
form  are  likely  to  impart  the  defects  to  their  offspring;  that 
is,  the  young  will  inherit  defects  from  their  parents.  None 
but  superior  animals  of  good  breeding  should  be  used  for 
breeding  purposes. 

A  very  important  item  in  successful  breeding  of  live  stock 
is  the  care  given  the  animals  used  for  breeding.  One  may 
have  breeding  stock  of  the  best  quality,  but  with  careless 
treatment  it  will  give  very  poor  returns.  1.  Breeding  animals 
should  be  properly  fed.  Sufficient  food  and  food  of  good  qual- 
ity is  necessary  to  keep  the  parents  strong  and  healthy  and  in- 
sure vigorous  offspring.  Musty,  mouldy,  rotten,  or  dusty  food 
should  not  be  fed  to  animals  intended  for  breeding  purposes. 
Live  stock  relish  clean,  sweet,  pure  food  as  much  as  human 
beings  do.  2.  What  has  been  said  concerning  food  applies 
also  to  the  water  which  animals  have  to  drink.  Clean  and 
pure  water,  about  50°  F.  in  temperature,  is  as  important  for 
animals  as  it  is  for  man.  The  fact  that  a  hog  will  wallow  in 
the  mud  is  no  sign  that  clean  water  is  not  best  for  it  to  drink. 
3.  Clean  and  comfortable  barns  and  sheds  are  desirable  for 
winter  and  cool,  shady  places  for  summer.    Artificially  warm 


THE    BREEDING   OF   LIVE    STOCK  271 

buildings  are  not  desirable  for  live  stock,  for  they  have  suflS- 
cient  covering  of  hair  to  keep  their  bodies  warm;  but  they 
should  be  kept  dry  and  protected  from  the  cold  rains  and 
chilly  winds  of  winter  and  spring.  4.  Exercise  is  necessary, 
especially  for  breeding  animals.  Exercise  is  nature's  method 
of  keeping  the  body  vigorous.  Animals  should  be  in  the  open 
air  in  summer  and  be  turned  out  in  good  weather  during 
the  winter. 

Good  ventilation  is  also  necessary  when  animals  are  stabled. 
To  get  such  ventilation  without  having  drafts  of  air  over  the 
animals,  many  stockmen  are  using  muslin  tacked  over  the 
windows  instead  of  glass  in  the  sash.  The  muslin  permits  an 
exchange  of  atmosphere  but  prevents  drafts. 


CHAPTER  XXXV 
SOME  TERMS  USED  IN  LIVE  STOCK  BREEDING 

In  the  breeding  of  live  stock  there  are  many  terms  and 
expressions  used  by  stockmen  which  are  not  well  understood 
by  persons  not  engaged  in  such  work.  A  few  of  these  expres- 
sions will  be  briefly  explained  in  this  chapter. 

Heredity. — It  is  a  common  saying  that  like  begets  like,  by 
which  is  meant  that  the  offspring  will  inherit  the  qualities 
of  the  parents.  If  they  are  good  animals  and  of  good  breed- 
ing the  offspring  is  likely  to  be  a  good  animal  also.  For  ex- 
ample, if  the  sire  or  dam  has  a  spavin,  the  colt  will  inherit 
a  weak  hock  which  will  make  probable  the  development  of 
a  spavin  in  it;  or  if  one  or  both  of  the  parents  are  vicious,  the 
offspring  will  probably  show  the  same  characteristics.  We 
may  say,  then,  that  heredity  refers  to  the  passing  on  to  the 
offspring  of  qualities  possessed  by  the  parents. 

Atavism. — This  means  a  tendency  for  the  offspring  to  be 
like  the  earlier  types  of  the  breed.  It  is  best  explained  by  an 
example.  Angus  cattle  are  now  black  in  color,  but  in  the 
earlier  history  of  the  breed  many  animals  were  red.  It  some- 
times happens  that  in  pure-bred  Angus  herds  a  calf  is  born 
which  is  red  in  color,  thus  reverting  to  the  earlier  type. 
The  same  thing  frequently  occurs  in  Berkshire  hogs.  Pigs 
are  farrowed  with  red  hair  in  their  coats,  which  doubtless 
comes  from  the  color  of  earlier  types.    These  examples  serve 

272 


SOME   TERMS    USED   IN    LIVE-STOCK   BREEDING     273 

to  illustrate  atavism.  The  term  reversion  refers  to  a  resem- 
blance of  the  offspring  to  rather  recent  ancestors.  A  very 
striking  case  of  atavism,  and  one  hard  to  explain,  is  often 
called  a  "sport";  for  example,  a  calf  white  in  color  was  born 
of  pure-bred  Galloway  parents  at  Brookside  Farm,  Fort 
Wayne,  Ind.  Since  Galloways  have  shown  no  other  color 
than  black  for  centuries,  this  was  a  most  extraordinary 
event. 

Variation. — It  is  impossible  for  the  offspring  to  be  like  both 
parents.  It  will  have  some  of  the  characteristics  of  both,  but 
will  be  more  or  less  unlike  either.  This  varying  from  the 
characteristics  of  the  parents  is  called  variation.  It  is  well 
understood  by  stockmen  that  no  two  animals  are  exactly 
alike.  Because  of  these  variations  it  is  possible  for  the  stock- 
man to  make  selections  for  improving  his  animals. 

Correlation. — ^When  the  body  is  greaily  developed  in 
some  particular  part,  some  other  part  will  be  less  developed 
than  it  should  be,  or  else  be  modified  in  some  way.  As  swine 
have  increased  their  tendency  to  become  fat  the  nose  has 
become  shorter.  The  dairy  cow  giving  larger  quantities  of 
milk  is  always  lean.  The  draft  horse  with  his  large  muscles 
and  strong  bones  is  always  slow  in  moving.  All  these  are 
examples  of  correlation.  The  student  desiring  to  know  more 
about  the  principles  of  breeding  should  consult  books  written 
especially  on  the  subject.    It  is  a  most  interesting  study. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 

THE  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

THE   COMPOSITION    AND   USES  OF   FEEDS 

The  farmer  who  raises  animals  needs  to  know  how  to  feed 
them  properly.  Just  as  he  needs  to  know  the  kind  of  soil  to 
which  a  plant  is  adapted  and  the  right  kind  and  amounts  of 
manure  and  fertilizer  to  apply  to  the  land  to  make  the  plant 
grow  properly,  so  does  he  need  to  know  the  composition  of 
the  various  feeds  and  what  effect  they  will  have  on  these 
animals  when  fed  to  them.  In  the  food  fed  to  animals  are 
found  the  elements  necessary  for  the  production  of  blood, 
bone,  muscle,  fat,  milk,  wool,  and  tissues  of  all  kinds.  When 
combined  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  heat  to  keep  the  body 
warm  and  energy  for  moving  it  are  also  supplied  by  the  food. 

As  soon  as  we  begin  to  talk  about  feeding  animals  we  have 
to  use  a  number  of  terms  which  are  not  understood  by  every 
one.  The  various  articles  which  are  fed,  such  as  hay,  fodder, 
grain,  meals,  etc.,  are  called  feeding  stuffs.  These  feeding 
stuffs  are  divided  into  two  large  classes;  namely,  nitrogenous 
and  non-nitrogenous  feeds.  As  the  soil  and  the  air  contain 
a  number  of  chemical  elements  which  are  necessary  for  the 
growth  of  the  plant,  so  do  these  feeding  stuffs  contain  many 
elements  necessary  for  the  animal  body.  Among  these  we 
may  mention  carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  oxygen,  sulphur, 

274 


THE   FEEDING  OF   ANIMALS  275 

phosphorus,  potassium,  sodium,  calcium,  magnesium,  iron, 
manganese,  silicon,  chlorine,  and  fluorine.  The  line  on  which 
feeds  are  divided  into  the  two  classes  just  mentioned  is  not 
well  established.  ^ 

Both  of  these  classes  contain  all  of  the  elements  named 
above.  However,  we  rarely  speak  singly  of  the  carbon,  hy- 
drogen, oxygen,  and  nitrogen  which  foods  contain,  but  of  the 
compounds  which  they  form.  In  speaking  of  the  composition 
of  a  feeding  stuff  we  usually  mention  six  things;  namely, 
water,  ash,  protein,  crude  fibre,  nitrogen-free  extract,  and  fat. 

It  is  well  known  that  all  green  plants  contain  much  water. 
Water  constitutes  about  eighty  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of 
green  corn  plants.  Timothy  hay  has  about  fifteen  per  cent, 
and  dry  corn  about  ten  per  cent,  of  moisture.  When  this  water 
is  removed  by  heating  in  an  oven  at  a  temperature  a  little  above 
boiling,  the  dry  material  left  is  referred  to  as  dry  matter. 

The  ash  of  the  plants  is  what  is  left  after  they  are  burned. 
If  we  were  to  burn  a  hundred  pounds  of  corn  kernels  there 
would  be  left  about  one  and  a  half  pounds  of  ashes.  The 
other  ninety-eight  and  one-half  pounds  would  have  passed 
into  the  air  as  gases.  Of  the  elements  mentioned  above,  all 
would  be  left  in  the  ashes  except  the  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxy- 
gen, nitrogen,  and  chlorine.  The  elements  that  are  left  in  the 
ashes  are  called  mineral  matter.  Different  feeds  contain  dif- 
ferent amounts  of  mineral  matter.  This  mineral  matter  is 
very  necessary  for  animals.  Lime  and  phosphorus  help  to 
make  bone;  iron  makes  the  blood  red;  chlorine  and  sodium 
help  in  digestion;  and  so  the  various  other  elements  serve 
different  purposes. 

Protein  is  the  name  given  to  the  different  forms  in  which 
nitrogen  is  found  in  feeds.    Protein  is  the  substance  which 


l^-«.lj^-«l 


63.      FYVIE   KNIGHT,  A   PURE-BRED   ANGUS 
Grand  Champion  fat  steer  at  International  Live  Stock  Show,  Chicago,  Dec,  1908 


THE    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS  277 

builds  tissues;  that  is,  cartilage,  tendons,  and  lean  meat  or 
muscle.  Besides  this,  it  enters  into  the  casein  and  albumen 
in  milk  and  seems  to  be  a  stimulator  of  milk  and  egg  pro- 
duction. When  necessary  the  body  uses  protein  to  make  fat 
and  to  furnish  heat  to  keep  the  body  warm  and  energy  with 
which  to  move  it,  but  when  an  animal  is  properly  fed  the  pro- 
tein is  not  much  used  for  such  purposes. 

Crude  Fibre  is  the  tough,  woody  part  of  plants.  It  is  com- 
posed mainly  of  cellulose  and  is  not  easily  digested.  Cellulose 
is  the  substance  that  makes  the  walls  of  cells  and  has  the 
same  composition  as  starch,  but  is  not  nearly  as  easily  di- 
gested. Any  food  which  is  composed  mainly  of  stems  or  has 
many  hulls  in  it  will  contain  a  large  percentage  of  crude  fibre 
and  will  not  be  first-class  feed.  Grains  have  much  less  crude 
fibre  than  hay  and  fodder.  For  example,  wheat  contains 
about  1.8  per  cent,  and  clover  hay  about  24.8  per  cent, 
crude  fibre. 

All  feeds  contain  some  oil  or  fat.  There  is  more  fat  in 
feeds  derived  from  seeds  like  corn,  oats,  or  cotton-seed  than 
there  is  in  hay.  In  the  process  of  analysis  the  fat  is  dissolved 
out  with  ether,  and  for  this  reason  fat  is  often  referred  to  in 
tables  of  food  composition  as  ether  extract.  Fat  is  composed 
of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  and  serves  the  same  pur- 
pose in  the  body  as  the  nitrogen-free  extract. 

The  nitrogen-free  extract  is  what  is  left  after  the  crude  fibre, 
fat,  protein,  and  ash  have  been  removed.  It,  too,  is  com- 
posed of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen.  According  as  these 
elements  are  united  we  have  starch,  sugar,  gum,  and  other 
substances.  Nitrogen-free  extract  and  crude  fibre  are  often 
spoken  of  as  carbohydrates.  The  carbohydrates  and  fats  are 
the  fuel  of  the  body.    By  the  process  of  digestion  they  are 


278  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

changed  just  as  wood  or  coal  is  changed  in  the  fire  and  in  the 
same  way  give  heat.  This  heat  furnishes  warmth  to  the  body 
and  also  energy  for  the  action  of  the  body.  The  carbo- 
hydrates and  fat  also  form  fat  in  the  animal  body,  and  from 
these  comes  the  fat  found  in  milk. 

Nearly  all  feeds  have  a  large  per  cent,  of  nitrogen-free 
extract,  but  the  per  cent,  of  fat  or  oil  is  small  except  in  such 
feeds  as  gluten  feed  and  cotton-seed  meal,  where  the  per  cent, 
may  be  as  much  as  ten  or  twelve.  The  per  cent,  of  nitrogen- 
free  extract  is  usually  somewhere  around  forty  in  hays,  while 
in  seeds  it  is  usually  from  sixty  to  seventy-five.  A  feed  which 
contains  a  good  deal  of  protein  and  fat  always  has  a  lower  per 
cent,  of  nitrogen-free  extract. 

Besides  the  above  terms  roughage  and  concentrates  are 
often  used  in  speaking  of  feeds.  Roughage  refers  to  all 
kinds  of  coarse  feed  such  as  hay  and  fodder.  Concentrates 
is  applied  to  all  grains  and  meals. 

The  digestibility  of  a  food  has  reference  to  the  amount 
which  becomes  available  for  the  use  of  the  animal  through  the 
action  of  the  various  digestive  juices  in  the  alimentary  tract. 
It  is  only  the  digestible  part  of  the  food  which  the  animal  can 
use  for  making  blood,  muscle,  bone,  etc.  The  undigested 
part  passes  off  as  solid  excrement.  The  digested  part  which 
is  not  stored  up  in  the  body  is  passed  off  mostly  in  the  liquid 
excrements  along  with  the  wastes  of  the  body. 

The  amount  of  a  food  which  is  digestible  may  be  expressed 
in  per  cent.,  and  this  is  called  the  coefficient  of  digestibility.  For 
example,  the  average  protein  in  shelled  corn  is  about  10.3 
per  cent,  and  its  digestibility  is  about  76  per  cent.  Then  in 
100  pounds  of  shelled  corn  there  would  be  10.3  pounds  of 
protein,  of  which  76  per  cent.,  or  7.828  pounds,  is  digestible. 


THE    FEEDING    OF    ANIMALS  279 

The  palatahility  of  a  food  is  important.  By  palatability  we 
mean  the  taste  of  the  food.  If  an  animal  eats  its  feed  greed- 
ily, it  is  because  it  likes  the  feed,  that  is,  the  feed  is  palatable. 
Some  feeds  show  a  very  desirable  composition,  but,  because 
they  do  not  taste  good,  animals  will  not  eat  enough  of  them 
to  produce  good  results.  Then,  too,  when  a  food  tastes  good 
the  digestive  juices  in  the  mouth,  stomach,  and  intestines  are 
secreted  in  greater  quantity  to  digest  the  food,  and,  conse- 
quently, a  larger  quantity  of  the  food  is  digested  and  used 
by  the  animal. 

In  the  table  of  Digestible  Nutrients  (see  Appendix)  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  various  kinds  of  feeding  stuffs  are  grouped 
together.  1.  Green  fodder  is  a  roughage  fed  green.  The  dry 
matter  in  green  fodder  is  quite  small.  This  is  because  green 
plants  have  a  large  per  cent,  of  water  in  them.  The  amount 
of  protein,  carbohydrates,  and  fat  in  one  hundred  pounds  of 
green  fodder  is  small  when  compared  with  that  in  one  hun- 
dred pounds  of  the  dry  fodders.  2.  The  dry  fodders  and  hays 
are  the  green  fodders  cut  and  cured.  The  dry  matter  and 
food  elements  are  large  in  this  group.  3.  The  straws  have 
a  large  amount  of  dry  matter  and  crude  fibre,  but  are  very 
poor  in  protein  and  fat.  4.  Roots  and  tubers  have  less  dry 
matter  and  fewer  food  elements  than  any  other  group  of  feeds, 
except  milk  and  its  products.  However,  roots  and  tubers  are 
valuable  feeds,  because  of  their  good  effect  in  keeping  the 
digestive  system  of  the  animal  in  good  condition.  5.  Grains 
and  other  seeds  are  high  in  dry  matter,  protein,  carbohy- 
drates, and  some  of  them  in  fat.  They  belong  to  the  concen- 
trates. 6.  Mill  products  are  nothing  but  the  grains  ground 
into  meal.  Their  composition  is  not  greatly  different  from 
the  unground  grain.    The  feeds    given  in  the  table  up  to 


280  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

this  point  may  be  called  home-grown  feeds,  since  they  can  all 
be  produced  on  the  farm.  7.  Under  the  heading  of  waste 
products  there  is  given  a  long  list  of  products  which  are  left  in 
the  manufacture  of  certain  commercial  products.  For  this 
reason  they  are  often  called  by-products.  For  example,  the 
gluten  meals  and  gluten  feeds  are  the  waste  products  in  the 
manufacture  of  glucose  from  corn,  and  brewers'  grains  and 
distillery  grains  come  from  the  large  breweries  where  alcoholic 
liquors  are  made.  It  will  be  noticed  that  nearly  all  of  these 
feeds  are  high  in  dry  matter  and  quite  rich  in  protein  and  fat. 
The  waste  products  are  the  group  of  commercial  concen- 
trates. Nearly  all  are  high-priced  feeds  owing  very  largely 
to  their  protein  content.  This  group  is  often  called  the  sup- 
plementary feeds,  because  they  are  used  to  fill  out  and  bal- 
ance the  home-grown  feeds.  8.  Milk  and  its  products  may 
be  considered  a  home-produced  group.  While  the  dry  matter 
and  food  elements  in  the  group  are  quite  low,  yet  every  farmer 
and  feeder  knows  their  great  value  for  feeding  to  swine. 


PHAPTER  XXXVII 
BALANCED  RATIONS  AND  FEEDING  STANDARDS 

The  food  which  is  fed  to  an  animal  daily  is  called  its  ration. 
The  digestible  elements  in  the  food  are  called  nvtrients.  When 
the  different  digestible  nutrients  are  in  the  right  proportions  to 
meet  the  needs  of  the  body  under  a  given  condition  without 
excessive  waste,  the  ration  is  said  to  be  in  balance,  that  is, 
it  is  a  balanced  ration.  A  balanced  ration  may  consist  of  a 
single  food,  but  it  is  usually  a  mixture  of  two  or  more. 

It  has  been  found  that  in  a  ration  there  does  not  need  to  be 
so  much  protein  as  carbohydrates  and  fat.  The  proportion 
of  these  nutrients  varies  according  to  the  purpose  of  feeding. 
If  milch  cows  are  being  fed,  the  proportion  of  protein  to  car- 
bohydrates and  fat  is  larger  than  if  fattening  steers  are  being 
fed.  The  proportion  of  digestible  protein  to  digestible  carbo- 
hydrates and  fat  is  called  the  nutritive  ratio.  When  the  pro- 
portion of  protein  is  large  the  nutritive  ratio  is  said  to  be 
narrow.  When  it  is  small  the  ratio  is  wide;  and  when  the 
proportion  is  medium  the  ratio  is  said  to  be  medium. 

To  determine  the  nutritive  ratio  of  a  feed  or  a  mixture  we 
multiply  the  digestible  fat  by  2.25,  because  it  has  been  found 
that  fat  will  produce  2.25  times  as  much  heat  as  carbohy- 
drates, and  add  the  product  to  the  digestible  carbohydrates. 
This  sum  is  then  divided  by  the  digestible  protein  in  the 
foods  and  the  quotient  placed  as  the  second  term  in  a  ratio 

281 


282  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

with  1  as  the  first  term.  For  example,  oats  (see  Appendix) 
contain  in  every  100  pounds  about  9.25  pounds  of  digestible 
protein,  48.3  pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrates,  and  4.18 
pounds  of  digestible  ether  extract  or  fat.  Now  4. 18  times  2.25 
equals  9.40;  9.40  plus  48.3  equals  57.70,  and  57.70  divided 
by  9.2  equals  6.1  +.  Therefore,  the  nutritive  ratio  of  oats 
would  be  1  :  6.2,  which  would  be  considered  a  medium  ratio. 
According  to  Dr.  Jordan,  of  the  New  York  Experiment 
Station,  a  ratio  less  than  1  : 5.5  is  a  narrow  ratio,  above 
1  : 8.0  a  wide  ratio,  and  anything  between  these  two  may 
be  considered  a  medium  ratio. 

Many  experiments  have  been  made  to  determine  how  many 
pounds  of  digestible  nutrients  an  animal  should  receive  in  its 
food  each  day,  but  the  problem  is  largely  unsolved.  The 
amount  needed  is  influenced  by  a  great  many  conditions, 
some  of  the  more  important  of  which  are  the  conditions  and 
purpose  of  the  animal,  its  age,  and  the  conditions  of  tempera- 
ture under  which  it  is  kept.  In  general  a  young,  growing  ani- 
mal, or  cow  giving  a  heavy  flow  of  milk,  needs  a  ration  having 
a  rather  narrow  ratio,  that  is,  a  larger  proportion  of  nitrog- 
enous foods.  A  mature  animal  or  one  laying  on  fat  requires 
a  ration  of  medium  or  wide  ratio. 

Experimenters  have  attempted  to  arrange  in  tables  the 
digestible  nutrients  necessary  for  animals  of  various  ages  and 
conditions.  These  tables  are  called  feeding  standards.  How- 
ever, practical  men  have  not  found  these  standards  very  use- 
ful, and  they  are  not  generally  used  except  as  guides  to  intel- 
ligent practice.  The  practical  man  must  always  study  his 
animals  and  the  feed  which  he  has  available  and  so  adjust 
them  as  to  get  the  largest  returns  possible  in  the  most  econom- 
ical manner. 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII 

SELECTING  ANIMALS  AND  METHODS  OF  FEEDING 

1.  Selecting  Animals  to  Feed. — There  is  a  great  differ- 
ence in  individual  animals  as  to  the  increase  in  weight  or 
gain  which  they  will  make  when  being  prepared  for  mar- 
ket. Men  who  have  fed  large  numbers  of  animals  have 
learned  from  experience  to  pick  out  those  which  will  feed 
profitably.  There  are  certain  indications,  like  the  shape  and 
character  of  the  head,  the  conformation  of  the  body,  the 
back,  the  coat  of  hair,  and  the  quality  of  the  bone,  which 
mark  an  animal  as  being  a  good  feeder.  The  following  quo- 
tations from  Circular  14,  Purdue  University  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station-,  give  the  characteristics  of  a  good  steer 
for  feeding  purposes.  Since  the  same  principles  in  general 
apply  to  sheep  and  hogs,  the  descriptions  may  be  made 
applicable  to  all: 

A  typical  beef  steer  is  blocky  and  compact,  has  a  short,  deep 
body,  short,  thick  neck,  short,  straight  legs,  straight  back  and  underline, 
an  abundance  of  width  from  one  end  to  the  other,  plenty  of  scale,  or 
weight,  and  a  *  feeder's  head  and  eye.*  The  skilled  feeder  buyer  pays 
more  attention  to  the  head  than  the  inexperienced  buyer  would  deem 
necessary,  especially  with  stock  cattle,  which  are  not  filled  out  suffi- 
ciently to  judge  as  to  their  future  development  and  probable  form  when 
finished.  He  will  also  realize  at  first  glance  whether  or  not  the  eye  is 
one  that  indicates  a  quiet  and  contented  disposition. 

The  head  should  be  broad,  short,  with  full  forehead,  strong  jaw, 
large  mouth  and  nostrils,  and  free  from  either  coarseness  or  delicacy. 

283 


284 


AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 


If  such  a  head  is  found  on  a  steer  in  feeder  condition,  it  is  usually  a 
guarantee  that  he  will  make  good  use  of  feed  and  develop  into  a  thick, 
blocky  individual  when  finished.  A  thick,  short  neck  is  desirable,  not 
because  of  its  intrinsic  value,  but  because  it  usually  indicates  a  thick 
carcass. 

A  short,  straight  back  indicates  strong  muscular  development  and 
a  tendency  to  mature  early.  Other  things  being  equal,  the  steer  with 
the  broadest  and  thickest  back  will  be  the  most  valuable,  as  the  highest- 
priced  cuts  of  meat  are  taken  from  the  back  and  loin.    For  this  reason. 


|/v             M 

1 

'Al^t0' 

64.       A    HIGH-GRADE    STEER    IN    " FEEDER"    CONDITION 

He  made  a  daily  gain  of  3.08  pounds  for  six  months  in  a  feeding  experiment 

By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station 


feeders  should  be  selected  which  will  develop  wide,  thick  backs  in  order 
that  they  may  sell  for  top  prices  when  fat.  A  desirable  depth  of  body 
and  spring  of  rib  result  not  only  in  a  greater  proportion  of  high-priced 
meat  but  also  give  the  steer  the  capacity  for  a  large  development  of  vital 
organs  and  ample  room  for  a  large  digestive  system  without  any  ten- 
dency to  paunchiness. 

Capacity  for  feed  is  essential  in  a  feeder,  as  the  body  must  be  main- 
tained and  provided  with  heat  and  energy  before  any  of  the  food  is  stored 
in  the  form  of  fat.  All  that  the  steer  can  consume,  digest,  and  assimilate 
above  maintenance   requirements  is  used   for  production;    hence  the 


SELECTING  ANIMALS  AND  METHODS  OF  FEEDING     285 

greater  the  capacity  the  greater  the  proportion  of  feed  that  is  utilized 
for  production  and  the  less  for  maintenance. 

Short,  straight  legs,  together  with  a  short,  deep,  broad  body,  are 
associated  with  early  maturity.  This  is  desirable  from  the  producer's 
stand-point,  as  it  enables  him  to  market  his  cattle  as  feeders  weighing 
1,000  pounds  at  18  to  20  months  instead  of  keeping  them  a  year  longer 
in  order  to  attain  the  same  weight.  The  early  maturing  steer  will  also 
sell  for  a  greater  price  per  pound,  as  the  experienced  feeder  has  learned 
that  they  will  not  only  make  rapid  and  economical  gains  but  will  finish 


65.   A  POOR  TYPE  OF  STEER  FOR  FEEDING  PURPOSES 

This  steer  made  a  daily  gain  of  .77  pounds  for  six  months  in  a  feeding  experi- 
ment.    Compare  the  form  of  this  steer  with  that  in  Fig.  64 
By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station 

more  quickly  than  those  which  are  slower  in  maturing.  Not  only  is  this 
type  more  desirable  to  the  producer  and  to  the  feeder,  but  also  to  the 
packer,  as  the  early  maturing  kind  yield  a  higher  dressing  percentage, 
thicker  cuts,  and  greater  proportion  of  high-priced  meat. 

In  the  stocker  or  feeder,  quality  is  synonymous  with  capacity  and 
early  maturity.  It  is  indicated  by  a  thick,  fine,  bright,  or  oily  coat  of 
hair,  a  fine,  hard,  dense  bone,  and  an  appearance  of  refinement,  smooth- 
ness, and  symmetry  throughout.  Such  a  coat  as  described  is  generally 
associated  with  a  healthy,  pliable,  and  mellow  skin;  as  the  inner  digestive 
organs  are  continuations  and  modifications  of  the  outer  skin,  health  in 


286  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

one  usually  indicates  health  and  activity  in  the  other,  insuring  a  good 
use  of  food  and  rapid  gains.  Smoothness  and  symmetry,  together  with 
quality  and  beef  type,  shorten  the  fattening  period.  As  the  gains  in  the 
feed  lot  are  expensive,  this  is  an  important  factor  in  favor  of  the  steer 
which  possesses  quality. 

Not  only  should  a  great  deal  of  attention  be  given  to  quality  in  feed- 
ers because  it  insures  less  expense  in  finishing,  but  because  it  enhances 
the  value  of  the  finished  or  fat  steer.  Quality  in  fat  steers  when  com- 
bined with  beef  type,  means  higher  dressing  percentage,  even  covering 
of  fat  on  carcass,  large  proportion  of  high-priced  cuts,  •  better  mixture 
of  fat  and  lean,  or  marbling  of  meat,  less  waste  in  cutting,  and  finer  mus- 
cular fibre,  all  of  which  make  the  steers  with  quality  more  valuable  to 
the  killer  than  those  which  are  plain  and  coarse. 

Besides  the  above  conditions  of  type  and  quality  it  is 
essential  that  the  animals  chosen  for  feeding  be  well  bred;  the 
offspring  of  pure-bred  sires  is  always  to  be  desired.  Such  ani- 
mals feed  with  more  profit  than  low  grades  or  scrubs. 

2.  Methods  of  Feeding. — (a)  Pasturing. — Grass  is  nat- 
ure's own  food  for  our  domestic  animals.  Pasturing  or 
grazing  is  one  of  the  cheapest  methods  of  feeding.  There  is 
none  of  our  farm  animals  which  cannot  be  kept  profitably 
during  the  warm  season  on  good  pasture.  In  some  cases  it 
seems  advisable  to  feed  a  small  quantity  of  grain  in  connection 
with  the  pasture.  This  is  especially  true  for  steers  and  pigs. 
It  has  been  demonstrated  that  it  usually  does  not  pay  to  feed 
grain  to  milch  cows  when  on  good  blue-grass  pasture. 

Besides  the  grasses  other  crops  are  pastured,  such  as  clover, 
rape,  cow-peas,  soy-beans,  and  corn.  Clover  is  good  pasture 
for  all  animals  and  particularly  so  for.  young  pigs.  Rape  is 
excellent  pasture  for  pigs  and  sheep,  but  some  grain  should  be 
fed  in  connection  with  it.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  turn 
animals  into  rape  when  it  is  wet  with  dew  because  it  will 
cause  the  skin  of  pigs  to  chafe  and  will  produce  bloat  in  sheep. 


SELECTING  ANIMALS  AND  METHODS  OF  FEEDING     287 

Rape  can  be  pastured  by  cows,  but  it  may  taint  the  milk  and 
is  also  likely  to  produce  bloat.  Cow-peas  and  soy-beans  are 
pastured  to  the  best  advantage  with  hogs.  Standing  corn  can 
be  pastured  with  sheep  and  hogs.  The  sheep  will  eat  mainly 
the  leaves,  while  the  hogs  will  feed  mostly  on  the  ears.  "  Hog- 
ging off"  corn  is  very  frequently  done  in  the  corn-belt,  and  in 
dry  autumns  it  is  a  satisfactory  way  of  harvesting  the  corn 
crop.  It  is  not  advisable  to  pasture  the  same  piece  of  ground 
at  the  same  time  with  both  sheep  and  hogs,  because  sheep  do 
not  like  to  feed  where  hogs  have  mussed  over  the  stalks.  It 
is  also  a  common  practice  in  the  corn-belt,  where  not  much 
corn  is  cut  and  put  in  shock  or  silo,  to  pasture  the  standing 
stalks,  after  the  corn  has  been  gathered,  with  all  classes  of 
farm  animals,  especially  the  young  animals.  This  is  a  waste- 
ful practice,  because  much  of  the  feeding  value  has  already 
been  lost  by  the  leaves  blowing  away.  Furthermore,  most  of 
the  soluble  part  has  been  washed  out  by  rains.  This  practice 
frequently  is  false  economy  on  account  of  the  harmful  effect 
of  trampling  the  soil  when  wet. 

(6)  Soiling. — This  is  cutting  the  plants  green  and  feeding 
them  at  once  in  the  stalls  or  yards.  This  method  of  feeding 
requires  a  great  deal  of  labor,  but  is  economical  in  that  a 
large  number  of  animals  can  be  kept  on  fewer  acres.  Pastur- 
ing always  requires  a  large  area  of  land,  while  soiling  does 
not.  Soiling  is  practised  mostly  by  dairymen,  but  it  should 
be  used  more  than  it  is  by  all  farmers  who  keep  animals, 
especially  in  the  warm,  dry  summer  months  when  pastures 
are  short  and  flies  are  bad.  Some  grain  may  be  fed  to  ad- 
vantage in  connection  with  the  green  plants.  The  various 
crops  used  for  soiling  have  been  discussed  under  Soiling 
Crops. 


288  AGRICULTURE    FOR   COMMON   SCHOOLS 

(c)  Feeding  Dry  Feed. — In  the  northern  states  all  live 
stock  has  to  be  fed  during  the  winter  months.  The  farmer 
usually  has  only  hay,  straw,  or  stover  for  feed.  The  milch 
cows  and  work-horses  usually  receive  some  grain,  but  the 
other  animals  rarely  receive  any.  This  way  of  wintering 
animals  is  not  the  best,  because  the  young  animals  need  some 
grain  to  keep  them  growing.  Then,  too,  all  the  animals  keep 
in  better  health  and  make  better  use  of  their  feed  if  some 
kind  of  succulent  feed,  like  silage  or  root  crops,  is  fed. 

Animals  which  are  being  fattened  are  usually  fed  heavily 
on  dry  feed,  largely  grain.  Silage  is  not  generally  used  by 
stockmen  for  feeding  fattening  steers,  as  its  profitableness  has 
not  been  fully  proved.  The  question  whether  it  pays  to  house 
or  shelter  live  stock  has  been  much  discussed,  and  various 
experiments  have  been  conducted  to  find  the  correct  answer. 
The  results  of  experiments  seem  to  indicate  that  fattening 
animals  do  better  when  fed  in  open  yards  and  with  a  shelter 
closed  on  two  or  three  sides  under  which  to  sleep  and  seek 
protection  from  bad  weather.  In  the  case  of  animals  which 
are  not  fattening,  such  as  milch  cows  and  young  growing 
animals,  it  has  been  shown  that  housing  in  a  well-ventilated 
barn  with  open  yards  to  go  into  on  pleasant  days  is  best. 
Fattening  animals  create  a  great  deal  of  heat  in  the  digesting 
of  their  food,  and  as  fat  is  produced  some  is  laid  on  under 
the  skin  which  helps  to  keep  the  animal  warm. 

{d)  Grinding  and  Cooking  Feeds. — It  is  frequently  asked 
whether  it  will  pay  to  grind  feed  for  animals,  and  whether 
cooking  adds  to  its  digestibility.  These  questions  have  been 
carefully  studied  by  the  various  agricultural  experiment  sta- 
tions as  well  as  by  practical  feeders.  It  is  generally  agreed 
that  grinding  the  grain  fed  adds  to  its  digestibility.    The  di- 


SELECTING  ANIMALS  AND  METHODS  OF  FEEDING     289 

gestive  juices  have  opportunity  to  act  more  completely  upon 
ground  grain  than  upon  unground.  Moreover,  the  animals 
waste  less  when  feeding.  However,  the  cost  of  grinding  deter- 
mines whether  it  will  pay  or  not.  When  grinding  costs  more 
than  one-tenth  of  the  value  of  the  grain,  it  is  not  likely  to  pay. 

It  may  be  briefly  stated  that  cooking  the  food  rarely  pays. 
In  many  experiments  animals  have  not  done  as  well  when 
fed  cooked  food  as  when  fed  raw  food.  Furthermore,  the 
shredding  of  fodder  and  the  cutting  of  hay  do  not  usually  pay. 

(e)  Salt. — All  live  stock  should  be  given  the  opportunity 
to  get  all  the  salt  they  want.  Salt  is  not  a  food  nor  does  it 
increase  the  digestibility  of  feeds,  but  it  stimulates  the  secre- 
tion of  digestive  juices,  tones  up  the  digestive  system,  and 
makes  the  food  more  palatable.  When  common  salt  is  used 
for  salting  it  should  be  given  regularly  every  few  days,  so  that 
the  animals  do  not  eat  too  much.  It  should  not  be  placed  di- 
rectly on  the  food,  but  in  a  convenient  place  for  the  animals 
to  take  what  they  wish.  Rock-salt  is  much  used  by  stockmen. 
This  kind  of  salt  is  in  hard  lumps,  and  the  animals  lick  the 
rock  until  they  are  satisfied. 

(/)  Pigs  Following  Cattle. — Cattle  fed  on  grain  do  not 
fully  digest  all  of  it,  and  much  of  it  passes  through  the  animal 
and  appears  in  the  excrement.  Every  feeder  knows  the  de- 
sirability of  having  pigs  follow  the  cattle  to  pick  up  all  such 
grain.  In  the  case  of  fattening  steers  fed  on  corn,  there  will 
be  enough  grain  in  the  droppings  to  keep  in  good  growing 
condition  one  pig  per  steer.  Feeders  generally  prefer  a  pig 
weighing  about  a  hundred  pounds.  It  often  happens  that  the 
only  profit  made  in  fattening  steers  is  in  the  gains  made  by 
the  pigs  following  them,  and  the  returns  from  increased  yields 
due  to  the  manure  produced. 


SECTION  V— DAIRYING 

CHAPTER  XXXIX 
DAIRYING 

The  human  race  has  used  milk  and  its  products  since  the 
earliest  times.  The  oldest  writings  speak  of  milk,  butter,  and 
cheese.  There  is  scarcely  a  man,  woman,  or  child  in  the  civi- 
lized population  of  the  world  who  does  not  use  every  day  in 
some  form  the  product  of  the  dairy.  The  importance  of  an 
industry  which  concerns  so  many  cannot  be  easily  stated  in 
words. 

It  will  be  well  to  understand  before  going  further  what  a 
dairy  is.  We  are  apt  to  think  of  a  dairy  as  being  a  place 
where  a  large  number  of  cows  are  kept  and  their  milk  pre- 
pared for  use  either  as  butter  or  for  drinking.  Such  a  place 
is  truly  a  dairy,  but  the  farmer  who  has  no  more  than  one  cow 
and  uses  her  milk  for  butter  or  for  drinking  also  has  a  dairy. 
The  only  difference  in  the  two  dairies  is  the  extent  of  the 
operations. 

Dairying,  then,  is  the  keeping  of  one  or  more  cows  and 
using  the  milk  for  drinking,  butter,  cheese,  or  some  other 
milk  product.  Of  course,  we  do  not  say  that  the  farmer  who 
raises  hundreds  of  bushels  of  grain  and  keeps  only  one  or  two 
cows  is  a  dairyman,  but  so  far  as  he  keeps  cows  and  makes  use 
of  their  milk  he  is  engaged  in  dairying.    He  does  not  make 

290 


DAIRYING 


291 


dairying  any  large  part  of  his  business.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
a  farmer  does  not  use  the  milk  for  human  use,  but  feeds  it  to 
calves  or  pigs,  he  is  not  engaged  in  dairying,  but  in  the  rais- 
ing of  live  stock  to  that  extent. 

All  dairies  are  not  located  on  farms.     There  are  many 
dairies  in  large  cities  where  the  cows  are  kept  in  stables  all 


66.       THIS    IS    A    TYPE    OF    THE    MODERN    DAIRY    BARN,    FITTED    FOR 
THE    PRODUCTION    OF   CLEAN    MILK 

Notice  the  possibilities  for  sunlight  and  ventilation.     The  cement   floors   aid  in 
cleanliness 

By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station 


the  time  and  fed  all  their  feed  in  the  manger.  Such  dairies 
are  engaged  in  supplying  milk  to  the  city  population.  How- 
ever, most  of  the  milk  is  produced  on  the  farm  and  a  large 
part  of  the  butter  is  made  there  also,  although  much  of  the 
butter  sold  in  cities  is  made  from  milk  brought  to  factories 
called  creameries. 


292 


AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 


In  dairying  the  most  important  item  is  cleanliness.  There 
is  probably  no  article  of  food  more  difficult  to  keep  clean  and 
fit  for  food  than  milk.  Every  one  means  to  be  particular 
about  what  he  eats,  but  the  dirt  which  he  eats  in  milk 
and    butter  would  astonish  him  if  he  were  to  see  it  sep- 


67.     A    PROFITABLE    HERD    OF    DAIRY    COWS 

This  herd  made  an  average  yearly  record  of  259.6  pounds  of  butter-fat  per  cow 

By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station 


arated  from  the  milk.  To  produce  milk  and  butter  of  high 
quality  and  to  succeed  in  a  high  degree,  several  things  are 
essential. 

1.  Necessary  Equipment. — The  equipment  necessary  is 
not  large,  but  it  should  be  suitable  and  of  good  quality. 
The  vessels  in  which  milk  is  to  stand  should  be  glazed  earth- 
enware or  heavy  tin  plate.  The  buckets  into  which  the  milk 
is  drawn  from  the  cow  should  be  heavy  tin  and  thoroughly 


DAIRYING  293 

clean.    All  joints  and  seams  in  the  vessels  should  be  soldered 
over  so  that  they  can  be  easily  cleaned. 

A  cool  place  for  keeping  milk  is  necessary.  This  may  be 
a  refrigerator,  a  cool  cellar,  or  a  trough  in  a  shaded  place  with 
cold  water  running  through  the  trough.  Unless  milk  is 
quickly  cooled  after  being  taken  from  the  udder  and  kept  cool 
it  will  soon  become  sour  arid  unfit  to  use.  A  well-ventilated 
ice-box  is  perhaps  the  best  place  for  keeping  milk,  for  in  the 
ice-box  the  temperature  can  be  controlled.  Ice  is  a  necessity 
in  running  a  large  dairy  properly,  and  it  is  very  convenient 
where  only  a  small  amount  of  milk  and  butter  is  handled. 

2.  Adaptable  Breeds  of  Cattle. — Of  course  milk,  butter,  and 
cheese  may  be  produced  from  any  of  the  breeds  of  cattle,  but 
all  breeds  are  not  profitable  for  dairy  purposes.  The  beef 
breeds  do  not  produce  enough  milk  to  make  them  profitable. 
If  one  is  engaged  in  producing  milk,  he  should  keep  only 
such  cows  as  give  large  returns  for  the  feed  which  they  eat. 
If  the  milk  is  made  into  butter,  only  such  cows  should  be 
kept  as  give  milk  rich  in  butter-fat.  Pure-bred  or  very  high 
grade  dairy  breeds  are  usually  to  be  preferred  to  scrub 
breeds. 

3.  IndiLstry. — There  is  probably  no  branch  of  farm  work 
which  requires  more  industrious  attention  than  dairying. 
Cleanliness  is  always  uppermost  in  the  dairy  business,  and  this 
requires  work.  Cows  must  be  milked  regularly  at  the  same 
hour  every  day,  and  best  results  are  obtained  if  the  same  per- 
son milks  the  same  cow  every  time.  This  means  that  one 
must  be  every  day  at  his  work. 


CHAPTER  XL 
COMPOSITION  AND  QUALITIES  OF  MILK 

Milk  is  a  white  liquid  with  a  yellowish  tinge.  It  is  secreted 
from  the  blood  by  two  large  glands.  These  glands  lie  outside 
the  body  walls,  being  covered  by  the  skin,  and  form  the  vdder. 
Each  gland  has  two  sections  or  quarters.  From  each  section 
there  is  a  tube  or  duct  through  which  the  milk  is  drawn. 
This  duct  is  enclosed  by  fleshy  walls  and  is  called  the  teat. 
At  the  top  of  each  teat  there  is  a  small  cavity  capable  of  hold- 
ing from  one-half  pint  to  a  pint  of  milk.  This  cavity  is  called 
the  milk  cistern.  Leading  into  this  cistern  are  ducts  from 
other  parts  of  the  gland.  These  ducts  have  their  origin  in  small 
clusters  of  cells  where  the  milk  is  secreted.  There  is  a  net- 
work of  blood  vessels  extending  throughout  every  part  of  the 
gland.  The  glands  on  the  right  and  left  sides  of  the  udder 
have  no  connection  whatever,  and  there  is  very  little  connec- 
tion between  the  front  and  hind  quarters  of  either  half. 

The  udder  contains  very  little  milk  at  any  one  time.  Most 
of  the  milk  is  secreted  while  the  milking  is  being  done.  Just 
how  this  secretion  takes  place  is  not  well  understood,  but  we 
know  that  milk  is  a  true  secretion,  because  the  elements  which 
it  contains  are  different  from  the  elements  found  in  the  blood. 
The  milk  is  kept  from  leaking  out  of  the  udder  by  a  little 
muscle  which  draws  the  opening  at  the  end  of  the  teat  tight 
shut.    This  muscle  is  called  a  sphincter  muscle.    Occasionally 

294 


COMPOSITION   AND   QUALITIES   OF  MILK  295 

this  muscle  is  weak  and  does  not  close  the  opening  tightly; 
then  the  milk  leaks  out.  Sometimes  it  is  very  strong  and  does 
not  let  the  milk  out  easily;  the  cow  is  then  "hard"  to  milk. 
The  cow  has  some  control  over  the  sphincter  muscles  which 
guard  the  openings  from  the  milk  cisterns  and  can  "  hold  up  " 
her  milk.  She  does  so  usually  only  when  scared  or  angry. 
A  feed  at  the  time  of  milking  will  cause  her  to  forget  her 
excitement.  Excitement  also  hinders  the  secretion  of  milk 
in  the  glands.  Kindness  and  quietness  should  always  be  ob- 
served in  handling  milch  cows. 

Milk  contains  all  the  food  elements  necessary  for  the 
growth  and  development  of  young  animals.  In  America  the 
milk  from  the  cow  is  the  only  milk  that  is  used  for  human 
food,  but  in  some  countries  the  milk  from  the  ass,  mare, 
goat  and  ewe  are  also  used.  Cow's  milk  does  not  have  a 
fixed  composition.  There  are  several  things  that  affect  it. 
Of  these  we  shall  speak  in  another  paragraph.  The  com- 
ponent parts  of  milk  may  be  grouped  as  follows:  1.  Water. 
2.  Albuminoids,  namely,  casein  and  albumen.  3.  Fats. 
4.  Sugar.  5.  Ash.  The  last  four  items  are  called  milk  sol- 
ids.   They  may  be  arranged  in  outline  as  follows: 

''Water 87.5% 

/Ash.. 7% 

Milk(  Sugar 4.7% 

Solids 12.5%  I  Albumen 5% 

I  Casein 2.8% 

^Fat 3.8% 

The  specific  gravity  of  cow*s  milk  is  usually  taken  at  1.032. 

A  study  of  the  composition  of  the  milk  from  the  several 
kinds  of  animals  shows  that  they  vary  a  great  deal,  but  all 


296  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

contain  the  same  elements  The  specific  gravity  also  is  rather 
variable.  The  fat  in  milk  has  a  tendency  to  make  it  lighter, 
while  the  casein,  sugar,  and  ash  tend  to  make  it  heavier. 

The  fluid  part  of  the  milk  in  which  the  fat  globules  float  is 
called  milk  serum.  In  the  serum  the  milk  solids  are  found  in 
two  conditions.  The  fat  and  some  of  the  casein  are  in  sus- 
pension, the  rest  of  the  solids  are  dissolved. 

The  fat  in  cow's  milk  is  the  ingredient  which  varies  most. 
The  other  solids  are  fairly  constant.  Although  the  average 
for  thousands  of  samples  is  given  as  about  3.8  per  cent.,  the 
range  of  percentages  of  fat  is  from  2  to  10  per  cent.  Very  few 
cows  give  milk  containing  more  than  7  per  cent,  of  fat,  while 
many  give  milk  having  3  per  cent,  and  less. 

There  are  several  things  affecting  the  per  cent,  of  butter- 
fat.  Briefly,  they  are  as  follows:  1.  The  individual  cow. 
Some  cows  naturally  give  milk  richer  in  milk-fat  than  others, 
although  they  may  be  of  the  same  breed  and  receive  exactly 
the  same  care.  2.  The  breed.  At  the  New  York  (Geneva) 
Experiment  Station  it  was  shown  that  the  milk  of  Jerseys 
was  richer  in  percentage  of  fat  than  that  from  any  other 
breed.  However,  the  breed  of  a  cow  is  not  a  sure  sign  of  the 
richness  of  her  milk.  More  depends  upon  the  cow  herself. 
3.  Period  of  lactation.  A  dow  gives  her  largest  flow  of  milk 
after  the  calf  is  a  few  weeks  old,  but  the  per  cent,  of  fat  is  larger 
usually  after  she  has  been  giving  milk  for  some  time  and  the 
quantity  begins  to  decrease.  4.  Comfort.  The  comfortable 
cow  will  usually  give  richer  milk  than  one  that  is  uncomfort- 
able. 5.  The  first  milk  drawn  is  poorer  in  fat  than  the  last 
drawn  or  "strippings." 

The  feed  which  a  cow  eats  does  not  affect  the  per  cent,  of 
fat  very  much.    Many  experiments  have  been  conducted  to 


COMPOSITION  AND   QUALITIES   OF  MILK  297 

find  out  if  it  is  possible  to  increase  the  per  cent,  of  fat  in  a 
cow's  milk,  but  they  have  all  failed  to  do  so.  The  food  does 
influence  the  quality  of  the  fat,  but  not  the  quantity,  except 
as  it  influences  the  amount  of  milk  given  by  the  cow.  Cotton- 
seed meal  makes  the  fat  globules  hard,  while  oil  meal  makes 
them  soft. 

As  was  observed  in  the  table,  the  specific  gravity  of  milk  is 
greater  than  that  of  water;  that  is,  milk  is  heavier  than  water. 
The  space  which  would  hold  1,000  pounds  of  water  would 
hold  1,032  pounds  of  milk.  The  sugar  in  milk  gives  it  a 
sweet  taste.  Milk  has  an  odor  due  to  certain  volatile  oils  in 
it.  The  yellowish  tinge  is  given  to  it  by  the  globules  of  fat. 
The  milk  from  a  fresh  cow  or  one  feeding  on  succulent  feed 
has  a  more  yellowish  tinge  than  the  milk  from  a  cow  old 
in  milk  or  one  fed  on  dry  feed.  Milk  from  Holstein  cows  is 
whiter  than  that  from  Jerseys.  If  fresh  milk  be  tested  with 
red  litmus  paper  it  will  turn  the  litmus  paper  blue,  showing 
an  alkaline  reaction;  but  if  blue  litmus  be  used  it  will  be 
turned  red,  showing  the  presence  of  an  acid.  The  acid  con- 
dition is  said  to  come  from  the  casein,  while  the  alkaline 
condition  is  the  natural  state  of  the  rest  of  the  milk.  How- 
ever, if  milk  stands  for  a  short  time,  it  becomes  definitely  acid. 

Colostrum. — The  milk  which  a  cow  gives  while  a  calf  is 
very  young  is  quite  different  from  ordinary  milk  and  is  called 
colostrum.  It  is  especially  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  young 
calf,  but  is  not  at  all  fit  for  human  food.  The  colostrum  is  a 
sticky,  yellow,  sweet  milk,  quite  rich  in  albumen,  and  has 
less  water  than  ordinary  milk.  Milk  should  not  be  used  for 
human  food  until  the  calf  is  four  days  to  a  week  old.  It  is 
safe  to  use  fresh  milk  that  does  not  coagulate  when  boiled. 
A  purple  precipitation  in  a  test-tube  after  adding  a  little  sul- 


298  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

phuric  acid  is  also  a  sign  of  colostrum.  Physicians  in  cities 
say  that  many  children  die  every  year  owing  to  the  colostrum 
in  milk  furnished  by  dairymen. 

Abnormal  Milk. — Salty  milk  is  sometimes  obtained  from 
cows.  Its  cause  is  not  clearly  known,  but  as  a  cure  the  cow 
should  be  dried  off,  that  is,  be  allowed  to  stop  giving  milk. 
Bloody  milk  may  be  due  to  an  injured  condition  of  the  udder, 
or  it  may  be  due  to  certain  bacteria  which  develop  after  the 
milk  has  been  drawn.  Blue  milk,  yellow  milk,  ropy  milk, 
and  bitter  milk  are  all  due  to  certain  germs  which  may  get 
into  milk  after  it  is  drawn  and  cause  these  various  conditions. 
Bitter  milk  is  sometimes  also  caused  by  food  which  the  cow 
has  eaten.  Milk  from  a  sick  cow,  or  one  in  any  way  not  in 
perfect  health,  should  never  be  used  for  human  food. 


CHAPTER  XLI 

PRODUCING  GOOD  MILK 

To  produce  milk  which  is  absolutely  pure  and  fit  to  use  for 
drinking,  or  for  butter  or  cheese,  requires  more  care  than 
any  other  work  on  the  farm.  Careful  attention  must  be 
given  to  the  vessels  in  which  milk  is  handled,  the  surroundings 
of  the  cows,  the  place  where  milk  is  kept,  and  the  actual 
process  of  milking.  The  dairyman  or  farmer  must  realize 
the  importance  of  keeping  everything  clean. 

1.  It  is  necessary  to  know  that  milk  is  easily  made  unfit  for 
use  by  dirt.  The  dirt  which  gets  into  milk  carries  with  it 
many  small,  one-celled  bodies,  called  bacteria.  These  are  a 
form  of  plant  life.  With  the  proper  temperature  these  bac- 
teria grow  very  rapidly.  A  single  bacterium  may  increase  so 
rapidly  that  in  a  period  of  twenty-four  hours  its  offspring 
and  their  offspring  may  number  many  millions — all  so  small 
that  they  are  not  noticed.  However,  their  presence  in  the 
milk  causes  it  to  become  sour,  and  acids  are  formed  which 
may  be  injurious  if  taken  into  the  stomach.  Disease-produc- 
ing germs,  or  bacteria,  are  often  introduced  through  the  dirt 
which  gets  into  milk.  Scarlet  fever,  tuberculosis,  diphtheria, 
measles,  and  many  other  diseases  may  be  carried  and  spread 
in  this  way. 

2.  As  was  stated  in  Chapter  XXXIX,  the  milk  pails  should 
be  made  from  the  best  quality  of  tin,  with  all  joints  and 

299 


300  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

seams  soldered  over  so  they  can  be  easily  cleansed.  All  other 
vessels  should  also  be  constructed  in  the  same  way.  All  ves- 
sels in  which  milk  is  handled  should  be  thoroughly  washed, 
scalded,  or  steamed,  and  exposed  to  the  sunshine  after  being 
used.  Before  being  washed  with  hot  water,  milk  vessels 
should  be  rinsed  with  cold  water.  The  hot  water  melts  the 
fat  and  cooks  the  albumen  and  makes  it  more  difficult  to 
cleanse  the  vessel.  A  little  washing  powder  or  soap  added 
to  the  water  is  desirable.  After  the  washing  has  been  done  a 
thorough  rinsing  with  scalding  hot  water,  or  a  good  steam- 
ing, should  be  given.  Exposure  to  sunshine  is  necessary, 
because  sunshine  is  death  to  bacteria  and  is  also  a  great 
sweetener  and  purifier.  Milk  is  one  of  the  best  places  for 
bacteria  to  grow,  and  when  pails  and  cans  are  carelessly 
washed,  or  milk  is  allowed  to  dry  in  the  seams  and  joints, 
bacteria  multiply  very  rapidly. 

3.  Milch  cows  should  be  kept  in  clean  and  healthful  sur- 
roundings. The  stables  and  yards  should  be  clean  and  dry. 
Cows  kept  in  dirty  and  foul-smelling  stables  cannot  give  milk 
of  the  best  quality,  nor  can  the  milk  gathered  under  such 
conditions  be  entirely  pure.  Milk  takes  up  odors  very  read- 
ily. Hence  it  is  impossible  to  draw  milk  in  a  foul-smelling 
stable  without  tainting  it.  The  yards  into  which  cows  are 
turned  in  the  winter  and  spring  should  be  as  dry  as  possible. 
It  is  not  good  for  the  cows  to  wade  in  mud  and  manure,  and 
some  of  the  mud  and  filth  which  will  get  on  the  cow  are  sure 
to  get  into  the  milk  at  milking  time. 

It  is  important  that  the  stables  in  which  cows  are  kept 
should  be  well  ventilated.  There  should  be  space  enough  in 
the  stable  to  give  each  cow  about  500  cubic  feet  of  air  to 
breathe.    There  should  be  windows  to  let  in  the  sunlight,  for 


PRODUCING   GOOD  MILK  301 

sunshine  is  a  good  disinfectant.  The  walls  and  floors  should 
be  tight  so  as  to  avoid  drafts  of  air.  Ceilings  should  be  seven 
or  eight  feet  high  with  a  tight  floor.  In  dairy  districts  tuber- 
culosis is  very  common  among"  dairy  cows,  and  it  is  partly 
due  to  the  housing  of  cows  in  ill-ventilated,  dark,  and  dirty 


68,      UNFAVORABLE   CONDITIONS   FOR   THE   PRODUCTION    OF   CLEAN 

AND    HEALTHFUL   MILK 

During  the  cold  months  many  milch  cows  are  stabled  in  barns  no  better  than  this  one 

By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station 

stables.  It  is  a  good  practice  to  groom  the  milch  cow  every 
day.  Grooming  not  only  keeps  the  skin  clean,  but  also 
keeps  it  in  a  healthier  condition.  The  manure  which  may 
get  on  the  hind  legs  from  lying  down  in  the  stall  should  be 
cleaned  off  every  day,  otherwise  it  collects  in  chunks,  is  un- 
sightly, and  some  of  it  is  sure  to  get  into  the  milk. 

4.  Much  dirt  gets  into  the  milk  at  milking  time.    When  the 


302 


AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 


cow  has  been  lying  down  in  her  stall  or  in  the  field,  more 
or  less  dirt  and  dust  cling  to  her  udder  and  the  under 
part  of  her  body.    If  this  is  not  brushed  off,  it  is  sure  to  get 

into  the  pail  when  the 
milk  is  drawn.  There 
is  also  always  a  great 
deal  of  scurf  which 
rubs  from  the  skin 
and  drops  into  the 
milk  pail.  Therefore, 
before  the  milk  is 
drawn  the  udder  and 
the  surrounding  parts 
should  first  be  care- 
fully brushed  with  a 
good  bristle  brush  like 
that  used  for  brush- 
ing horses.  Then  a 
moist  sponge  should 
be  used  to  dampen 
the  hair  and  skin. 
Sometimes  it  may  be 
necessary  to  wash  the  parts  well,  but  it  is  better  to  brush 
them  off  well  unless  they  are  very  dirty. 

The  milker  should  wash  and  dry  his  hands  before  begin- 
ning to  milk  and  should  keep  them  dry  while  milking.  He 
should  also  brush  his  clothing  well  before  beginning  to  milk. 
In  many  dairies  the  milkers  put  on  clean  white  suits  and 
caps  before  beginning  to  milk.  The  milking  should  be  done 
quickly,  so  that  as  little  as  possible  of  outside  dust  can  get  into 
the  milk.    It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  have  a  cloth  over  the 


69.       AN    UNKEMPT    DAIRY    COW 

Clean  milk  cannot  be  produced  from  cows  kept  in 
this  condition 

By  courtesy  of  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station 


PRODUCING  GOOD  MILK 


303 


top  of  the  milk  pail  in  summer  when  milking,  so  that  no  flies 
can  get  into  the  milk.  The  fly  has  many  bacteria  on  its  legs 
and  feet,  and  these  will  be  washed  off  into  the  milk,  making 
it  unclean.    We  need  to  realize  more  than  we  do  that  flies 


70.      WASHING   THE    UDDER   BEFORE   BEGINNING   TO   MILK 
By  courtesy  of  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station 

are  dangerous  to  health  by  reason  of  the  dirt  and  disease 
which  they  carry. 

5.  As  soon  as  the  milk  is  drawn  it  should  be  removed  to 
another  place,  strained,  and  cooled  at  once.  The  place  where 
the  straining  is  done  should  be  perfectly  clean,  free  from 
odors,  dust,  flies,  dogs,  and  cats.  A  fine  wire  strainer  with 
eighty  meshes  to  the  inch  should  be  used  for  straining  the 
milk. 

Creaming. — By  creaming  we  mean  the  separating  of  the 
butter-fat  from  the  milk.    Milk  as  it  comes  from  the  cow  is 


301  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

called  whole  milk.  After  the  fat  has  been  removed  it  is  called 
skim-milk.  It  is  not  easy  to  separate  the  fat  alone,  so  that 
some  milk  is  also  taken  with  the  fat,  and  this  is  called  cream. 
Cream  is  milk  with  a  very  large  per  cent,  of  fat  in  it.    When 


71.      A   MILKING   MACHINE   AT   WORK 

Many  large  dairies  are  using  these  machines.    They  lessen  the  labor  of  milking 
and  keep  the  milk  clean.     The  machine  is  operated  by  compressed  air 

milk  is  allowed  to  stand  in  a  vessel  for  some  time  the  globules 
of  fat  gather  at  the  surface  and  form  the  cream.  A  low  tem- 
perature is  favorable  to  the  rise  of  the  fat  globules. 

There  are  four  methods  or  systems  of  separating  the  fat  or 
cream  from  milk;  namely,  by  the  use  of  shallow  pans,  by 


PRODUCING   GOOD   MILK  305 

deep  setting,  by  dilution  separators,  and  by  centrifugal  sepa- 
rators. 

1.  In  the  shallow-pan  system  the  milk  is  put  into  shallow 
pans  or  crocks  and  set  in  a  cool  place,  usually  the  cellar,  for 
twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours.  The  milk  is  from  two  to 
eight  inches  deep  in  the  pan  or  crock,  depending  upon  the  ves- 
sel. The  temperature  of  the  room  ought  to  be  about  60°  F. 
At  the  end  of  the  time  mentioned  the  cream  is  removed  with 


^^FT^       ^WBg^^m*j^  ■  M  .af 


72.       THIS  CUT  SHOWS  THE  EFFECTIVENESS  OF  EACH  OF  THE 
FOUR  METHODS    OF    SEPARATING    THE    CREAM 
Note  the  small  loss  where  the  centrifugal  separator  is  used:  shown  by  the  print 
at  the  left .     By  courtesy  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station 

Si  skimmer.  This  is  usually  a  slightly  concave  tin  disk  with 
a  handle.  One  cannot  get  all  the  butter-fat  by  this  system. 
The  temperature  is  usually  not  low  enough  to  induce  all  the 
fat  to  rise  to  the  top.  About  one-fifth  of  the  fat  is  lost  by  this 
system.  The  skim-milk  from  this  system  nearly  always  con- 
tains .5  of  1  per  cent,  or  more  of  fat. 

2.  In  the  deep-setting  system  the  milk  is  put  into  cans 
about  twenty  inches  deep  and  less  than  one  foot  in  diameter 
and  placed  in  cold  water.  The  water  used  is  cooled  by  ice  so 
that  it  will  bring  the  milk  down  to  a  temperature  of  40°  F. 
very  quickly.     It  should  be  kept  at  this  temperature  for 


306  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

twenty-four  hours,  when  nearly  all  of  the  fat  will  have  risen 
to  the  top.  This  method  is  quite  effective  and  the  amount  of 
fat  left  in  the  skim-milk  is  often  not  more  than  .2  of  1  per  cent. 

3.  A  dilution  separator  is  a  can  into  which  the  milk  is 
poured  and  then  diluted  with  water,  usually  one-half.  The 
can  is  made  with  a  faucet  so  that  the  skim-milk  can  be  re- 
moved from  the  bottom.  The  can  is  kept  in  a  cool  place  or 
in  cold  water.  When  the  milk  is  diluted  the  fat  rises  to  the  top 
more  quickly.  There  are  several  objections  to  the  dilution 
system :  (a)  The  water  used  always  has  some  germs  in  it. 
However,  they  may  not  always  be  injurious,  (b)  The  cream 
obtained  is  not  of  the  best  quality,  (c)  The  diluted  skim-milk 
is  not  so  good  to  feed  to  pigs  or  calves,  (d)  The  fat  is  not  all 
removed,  as  much  as  .7  of  1  per  cent,  or  more  may  be  left  in 
the  skim-milk.  All  experiment  stations  condemn  the  dilution 
separator. 

4.  The  centrifugal  separator  is  a  machine.  The  milk  runs 
into  a  bowl  which  is  revolved  several  thousand  times  per 
minute.  The  revolving  has  a  tendency  to  throw  the  heaviest 
particles  to  the  outside  of  the  bowl.  Since  the  fat  is  not  so 
heavy  as  the  other  parts  of  the  milk,  it  would,  therefore,  be 
crowded  toward  the  centre  of  the  bowl.  The  cover  of  the 
bowl  is  so  constructed  that  the  cream,  or  fat,  can  escape  from 
the  centre  of  the  cover,  while  the  skim-milk  escapes  from 
openings  nearer  the  edge  of  the  bowl.  There  are  many  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  separators  and  each  has  a  differently  con- 
structed bowl.  Most  bowls  have  inside  parts  intended  to 
spread  the  milk  out  in  thin  layers  so  that  the  centrifugal  force 
can  act  more  completely.  There  are  some  bowls  which  have 
no  inside  parts.  They  are  known  as  hollow  bowls.  The  sep- 
arator does  not  separate  the  fat  entirely  by  itself,  but  also 


PRODUCING  GOOD  MILK 


307 


takes  some  of  the  other  parts  of  the  milk  with  the  fat.  The 
separator  takes  the  fat  from  the  milk  more  completely  than 
is  done  by  any  other  system  of  creaming.  A  well-operated 
separator  rarely  leaves 
as  much  as  .1  of  1  per 
cent,  of  fat  in  the  skim- 
milk. 

When  milk  is  creamed 
with  a  separator  it  is 
done  by  running  it 
through  the  separator 
as  soon  as  it  is  drawn 
from  the  cow.  Milk 
can  be  creamed  after  it 
has  cooled,  but  it  must 
be  warmed  again  to  at 
least  95°  F.  and  be 
thoroughly  stirred  up 
before  running  it  into 
the  bowl.  There  are 
many  thingsto  be 
learned  about  operating 
the  separator,  if  perfect 
work   is     to   be    done. 

However,  the  companies  selling  the  machines  usually  give 
full  directions  for  operating  them.  The  two  most  import- 
ant items  are  to  have  the  machine  set  level,  and  to  clean 
the  bowl  and  its  parts  thoroughly  after  each  time  of  using. 

Milk  for  City  Delivery. — Many  dairymen  and  farmers 
sell  their  milk  direct  to  customers  in  the  city.  All  that  has 
been  said  about  cleanliness  applies  to  milk  being  prepared 


73- 


A  GOOD  KIND  OF  MILK  COOLER 
AND  AERATOR 


The  milk  is  poured  into  the  top  and  runs 
out  of  small  holes,  spreading  over  the  surface 
of  the  lower  part  in  which  is  ice-water 


308 


AGRICULTURE   FOR   COMMON   SCHOOLS 


for  city  customers.  Milk  intended  for  city  customers  is  not 
creamed,  at  least  only  a  small  part  of  it.  The  most  important 
item  in  preparing  milk  for  city  delivery  after  cleanliness  is  the 
cooling  of  the  milk.  This  is  often  neglected.  Cooling  is  nec- 
essary in  order  to  have 
the  milk  keep  sweet  a 
reasonable  time  after 
being  delivered  to  pa- 
trons. 

There  are  several  de- 
vices for  cooling  milk. 
In  all  of  them  it  is  ar- 
ranged to  let  the  milk 
spread  itself  over  a  con- 
siderable surface  in  a 
thin  sheet.  This  sur- 
face is  kept  cool  by 
cold  w^ater  underneath. 
After  running  over  the 
surface  the  milk  flows 
again  into  a  can.  By 
this  method  of  cooling 
the  temperature  should 
be  reduced  to  at  least 
60°  F.  Now,  if  it  is 
delivered  promptly  and  then  set  in  a  refrigerator  by  the 
housekeeper,  the  milk  should  be  sweet  and  wholesome  for  at 
least  two  days,  where,  if  it  were  not  cooled,  it  would  not  keep 
longer  than  twenty-four  hours.  The  cooling  of  the  milk  by 
spreading  over  a  surface  also  aerates  the  milk,  that  is,  exposes 
it  to  the  air  so  that  all  odors  escape.    If  the  air  of  the  milk- 


74.  WHERE  MUCH  MILK  IS  BOTTLED  FOR 
CITY  DELIVERY,  A  MACHINE  WHICH 
WILL  FILL  SEVERAL  BOTTLES  AT  ONE 
OPERATION    IS    DESIRABLE 

This  one  fills  four  quart  and  five  pint  bot- 
tles at  one  time 


PRODUCING   GOOD  MILK  309 

room  is  perfectly  pure  this  aeration  improves  the  quality  of 
the  milk  very  much. 

Milk  which  is  delivered  to  city  patrons  should  be  bottled 
because  it  is  cleaner.  When  each  customer's  amount  is  dipped 
from  a  can  at  each  stopping  place  dust  is  sure  to  be  intro- 
duced from  the  street.  Also,  the  dippers  and  the  vessel  into 
which  the  milk  is  put  are  apt  to  have  dust  collected  on  them. 
Winds  blowing  the  dust  about  city  streets  spread  thousands  of 
germs  of  all  kinds.  No  kind  of  food  should  be  exposed  to  this 
dust,  and  least  of  all  milk.  Keeping  the  bottles  thoroughly 
clean  is  another  important  item  in  connection  with  city  milk 
supply.  They  should  be  thoroughly  scalded,  steamed,  and 
exposed  to  the  sun. 


CHAPTER  XLII 
BUTTER-MAKING 

Butter  is  a  product  of  milk  that  has  been  known  from  the 
earliest  times.  The  early  methods  of  making  butter  were 
very  crude  and  consisted  mainly  in  agitating  whole  milk  in 
bags  of  skin  until  the  fat  globules  gathered  into  clusters. 
The  handling  of  cream  and  the  process  of  making  butter  have 
received  much  study,  and  many  improvements  have  been 
made. 

Preparing  the  Cream. — On  the  average  farm  not  enough 
cream  is  skimmed  at  one  time  to  make  a  churning.  It  is 
necessary,  then,  to  collect  the  cream  from  several  skimmings 
or  separations.  If  cream  is  separated  with  the  separator  it 
should  be  cooled  at  once  to  40°  F.  or  50°  F.,  and  kept  at  that 
temperature  until  enough  is  collected  for  a  churning.  If 
cream  is  skimmed  from  pans,  crocks,  or  cans  it  will  not  need 
to  be  cooled  so  much.  The  cooling  is  properly  done  by  set- 
ting the  cream  in  a  can  in  ice-water  and  then  stirring  the 
cream  slowly  until  it  has  reached  the  desired  temperature. 
A  dairy  thermometer  is  a  necessary  article. 

It  is  common  practice  on  most  farms  to  mix  the  cream 
from  each  skimming  with  that  of  the  previous  skimming,  but 
this  is  not  best  if  one  wishes  to  make  a  high  quality  of  butter. 
The  older  cream  is  sure  to  become  slightly  sour,  and  when 
cream  of  different  ages  is  churned  together  the  churning  will 

310 


BUTTER-MAKING  311 

not  be  complete  and  much  fat  will  be  lost  in  the  buttermilk. 
The  butter  will  also  be  lacking  in  flavor.  The  cream,  then, 
from  different  skimmings,  if  possible,  should  be  kept  sep- 
arate and  cool  until  enough  is  gathered  for  a  churning. 
Then  all  should  be  mixed  together,  thoroughly  stirred,  and 
allowed  to  ripen. 

By  ripening  we  mean  the  souring  of  the  cream.  Butter 
can  be  churned  from  cream  which  is  perfectly  sweet,  and  this 
is  often  done.  Such  butter  is  called  sweet-cream  butter.  It  is 
a  delicate  product  and  will  not  keep  long.  Most  of  the  butter 
sold  on  the  market  has  been  made  from  sour  cream  and  it  is 
known  as  sour-cream  butter.  The  term  ripening  is  usually 
taken  to  include  all  the  changes  that  take  place  from  the 
time  the  cream  is  skimmed  until  it  is  ready  to  put  into  the 
churn. 

There  are  reasons  for  souring  the  cream  before  churn- 
ing it.  1.  The  churning  is  more  completely  done.  By  the 
process  of  ripening,  the  cream  is  made  less  viscous  and  the 
fat  globules  can  move  through  it  more  easily.  In  churning, 
then,  the  fat  globules  are  collected  together  more  easily  and 
completely  and  very  little  fat  is  left  in  the  buttermilk.  2.  The 
butter  keeps  better.  It  has  just  been  said  that  sweet-cream 
butter  does  not  keep  well,  but  soon  loses  its  good  quality. 
Butter  made  from  sour  cream  keeps  its  good  quality  for  some 
time  if  properly  cared  for.  3.  The  flavor  and  aroma  are 
increased.  When  cream  has  been  properly  ripened  it  has 
a  pleasant  odor  and  flavor.  These  are  developed  by  the 
souring  process. 

Cream  is  made  sour  by  the  action  of  bacteria.  There  are 
many  species  of  bacteria  which  can  make  cream  sour,  but 
only  a  few  of  these  develop  the  kind  of  sourness  which  gives  the 


312  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

dosirable  flavor  and  odor  to  the  butter.  These  are  known  as 
the  lactic  acid  bacteria  or  ferments,  for  souring  is  a  process  of 
fermentation. 

There  are  two  methods  of  souring  cream;  namely,  natural 
and  artificial.  The  natural  method  is  the  one  commonly  in  use 
on  the  farm.  It  consists  in  letting  the  cream  stand  in  a  large 
jar  or  can  at  a  suitable  temperature,  usually  60°  to  70°  F.,  un- 
til sour.  The  cream  has  a  good  many  kinds  of  bacteria  in  it 
even  when  care  has  been  taken  to  keep  it  clean.  The  lactic 
acid  ferments  are  always  present,  and  under  favorable  condi- 
tions they  will  develop  and  give  to  the  cream  that  kind  of 
sourness  or  acidity  which  will  make  butter  of  good  flavor. 
But  it  often  happens  that  conditions  are  not  favorable  for 
them,  and  this  is  especially  true  jn  the  winter  and  early  spring. 
This  largely  accounts  for  the  poor  quality  of  country  butter 
at  that  time  of  the  year.  During  the  winter  season  milk  and 
cream  are  often  kept  in  the  kitchen  or  pantry.  In  winter 
there  is  a  lack  of  succulent  feed  and  the  period  of  lactation  is 
usually  far  advanced.  Under  such  conditions  it  is  not  easy 
to  make  butter  of  good  quality. 

Cream  may  be  ripened  artificially  in  two  ways:  (1)  By 
adding  to  the  raw  cream  a  starter;  (2)  by  adding  a  starter  to 
pasteurized  cream.  A  starter  is  a  specially  prepared  lot  of 
whole  milk,  skim-milk,  or  buttermilk  that  contains  the  desired 
lactic-acid  bacteria.  A  whole-milk  starter  is  made  by  taking 
a  quart  of  milk  just  as  it  comes  from  the  cow  (care  being  taken 
to  have  it  absolutely  clean),  putting  it  in  a  quart  fruit-jar,  and 
letting  it  stand  on  a  ^elf  at  a  temperature  of  70°  F.  for  twenty- 
four  hours.  A  skim-milk  starter  is  made  in  the  same  way, 
but  fresh  skim-milk  from  the  separator  is  used  instead  of  the 
whole  milk.    A  buttermilk  starter  is  made  by  taking  some  of 


BUTTER-MAKING  313 

the  buttermilk  from  a  churning  in  which  the  butter  has  been 
of  excellent  flavor.  A  skim-milk  starter  is  usually  preferred, 
because  it  will  contain  the  desirable  bacteria  in  a  larger  pro- 
portion than  either  of  the  others. 

Another  kind  of  starter  is  called  commercial  starter.  It  con- 
sists of  a  preparation  containing  the  desired  kind  of  bacteria. 
The  preparation  is  made  in  special  laboratories  where  every- 
thing is  favorable  to  producing  the  right  kind  of  bacteria.  In 
liquid  starters  the  bacteria  are  put  up  in  sterilized  bouillon,  or 
milk.  In  powder  starters  the  bacteria  are  contained  in  a 
powder  of  milk-sugar.  Both  kinds  are  good  while  fresh,  but 
the  liquid  starter  deteriorates  more  quickly  than  the  powder. 
Commercial  starters  are  used  mostly  in  creameries,  and  full 
directions  for  use  come  with  each  package. 

Cream  and  milk  are  pasteurized  by  heating  to  a  tempera- 
ture between  140°  F.  and  212°  F.,  usually  160°  F.,  for  five 
minutes.  Or  temperatures  of  155°  F.  for  ten  minutes  or 
150°  F.  for  fifteen  minutes  or  140°  F.  for  thirty  minutes 
may  be  used.  These  temperatures  kill  practically  all  the 
germs  commonly  found  in  milk  or  cream.  Having  killed  the 
germs  of  all  kinds,  the  butter-maker  can  introduce  by  means 
of  the  starter  just  the  kind  of  germs  desired.  Some  of  the 
advantages  claimed  for  pasteurization  are:  (1)  A  more  uni- 
form quality  of  butter  can  be  made;  (2)  many  of  the  bad 
taints  in  the  milk  or  cream  are  removed;  (3)  most  of  the 
germs  are  destroyed,  and  therefore  the  danger  from  disease 
germs,  like  scarlet  fever,  typhoid  fever,  etc.,  is  lessened; 
(4)  the  keeping  quality  of  the  butter  so  made  is  increased. 
Pasteurization  cannot  be  properly  done  without  expensive 
machinery,  and  it  is  little  used  except  by  creameries  and 
large  milk  plants. 


314  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

On  the  farm,  cream  is  usually  ripened  by  the  natural 
method.  In  the  summer  it  should  be  kept  in  cool  water  until 
enough  is  collected  for  churning.  Then  it  should  be  thor- 
oughly mixed  and  set  out  of  the  water  in  the  morning 
and  allowed  to  ripen  during  the  day.  It  can  be  set  back  in 
cold  water  in  the  evening  and  will  be  ready  for  churning  in 
the  morning.  In  winter  the  cream  can  be  warmed  up  and 
allowed  to  ripen  and  then  cooled.  The  best  temperature  for 
ripening  is  65°  to  70°  F.  The  cream  should  be  cooled  to  about 
50°  F.  again  and  kept  at  that  temperature  for  several  hours 
before  churning.  In  the  winter  one  may  wish  to  use  a  starter 
to  help  along  the  souring  process.  About  one-tenth  as  much 
starter  as  cream  is  about  the  right  quantity  to  use,  but  this 
depends  upon  the  richness  of  the  cream ;  a  poor  cream  should 
have  less  starter.  Cream  is  considered  ripe  when  it  has  a 
thick,  glossy  appearance  and  smells  and  tastes  pleasantly 
sour.  The  sourness  is  sometimes  tested  by  an  acid  indicator. 
It  should  then  show  an  acidity  of  .5  to  .6  per  cent.  Care 
should  be  taken  that  cream  does  not  become  overripe,  as 
overripe  cream  makes  butter  that  soon  becomes  rancid. 
Care  should  be  taken  that  the  cream  does  not  become  too 
sour  or  the  casein  will  be  curdled  and  will  appear  as  cheesy 
granules  in  the  butter.  Your  Experiment  Station  will  be 
glad  to  tell  you  how  to  make  this  test. 

Churning. — After  the  cream  has  been  properly  ripened  and 
cooled  to  the  right  temperature  for  at  least  two  hours,  it  is 
ready  to  churn.  Churning  is  the  collecting  of  the  fat  globules 
into  a  mass.  It  is  accomplished  by  agitating  the  cream  in 
a  vessel  called  a  churn.  In  the  process  of  churnjng  the  cream 
is  whipped  about  from  side  to  side  or  end  to  end  of  the  churn, 
and  the  fat  globules  striking  against  each  other  stick  together 


BUTTER-MAKING  315 

in  gradually  increasing  clusters,  until  they  become  visible  to 
the  naked  eye  as  pale,  whitish  granules.  As  the  churning 
proceeds  the  cream  gets  so  thick  that  it  will  scarcely  move 
in  the  churn,  but  finally  the  cream  "breaks"  and  the  small 
clusters  appear  as  distinct,  yellow  grains,  and  if  the  churning 
be  continued  they  gather  into  a  large  yellow  lump  of  butter. 
It  is  best  to  stop  the  churning  when  the  yellow  granules  are 
about  as  large  as  wheat  kernels.  The  liquid  which  separates 
out  from  the  butter  granules  is  buttermilk.  It  should  be 
drained  off  as  soon  as  the  butter  "comes." 

If  butter  color  is  used  it  should  be  put  into  the  cream  at 
the  beginning  of  the  churning.  The  amount  to  be  used 
varies.  Directions  for  use  are  usually  on  the  bottle.  More 
color  is  needed  in  winter  than  in  summer. 

A  word  should  be  said  about  churns.  There  are  many 
kinds  of  churns.  That  kind  of  churn  is  best  which  has  no 
inside  parts.  Inside  dashers  or  paddles  injure  the  butter 
granules  and  make  the  butter  more  or  less  greasy.  Barrel, 
box,  or  swing  churns  are  the  best.  The  churn  should  always 
be  made  of  wood,  because  the  butter  sticks  to  metal  and  is 
not  easily  removed. 

Something  should  be  said  also  about  preparing  the  churn 
for  churning.  No  matter  how  well  it  was  washed  at  the 
last  churning  it  should  be  again  thoroughly  scalded  with 
boiling  water.  Throw  in  a  gallon  or  two  of  hot  water,  move 
the  churn  two  or  three  times,  and  quickly  draw,  off  the  water. 
Then  just  as  quickly  as  possible  throw  in  a  gallon  or  two  of 
ice-cold  water  and  give  the  churn  several  turns.  The  hot 
water  should  not  stand  in  the  churn,  for  the  heat  will  pene- 
trate the  wood,  making  it  warm,  and  this  will  warm  up  the 
cream.    The  purpose  is  to  scald  the  churn  and  then  cool  it 


316  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

as  quickly  as  possible.  It  may  be  necessary  to  add  ice-water, 
or  cold  water,  a  couple  of  times,  especially  in  summer. 

The  cream  when  put  into  the  churn  should  have  a  temper- 
ature of  about  54°  F.  It  will  usually  rise  a  couple  of  degrees 
in  the  churn,  making  the  temperature  56°  F.  This  is  a  desir- 
able temperature  in  summer.  A  temperature  of  60°  F.  is 
often  better  in  winter,  especially  if  the  cows  are  fed  all  dry 
feed,  with  no  silage  or'  roots.  Furthermore,  a  higher  tempera- 
ture is  necessary  if  cows  are  old  in  their  period  of  lactation. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  churning  it  is  necessary  to  ventilate 
the  churn  at  each  turn  or  two,  if  it  be  tightly  closed,  in  order 
to  allow  the  gases  and  expanded  air  to  escape. 

Washing  the  Butter. — As  soon  as  the  churning  is  finished 
the  buttermilk  is  drawn  or  poured  off.  A  fine  horse-hair 
sieve  should  be  used  to  catch  the  small  particles  of  butter 
which  may  run  off  with  the  buttermilk.  After  drawing  off  the 
buttermilk  enough  water  should  be  put  into  the  churn  to 
float  the  butter  nicely.  The  churn  should  be  shaken  gently 
in  order  to  bring  all  the  granules  in  contact  with  the  water. 
After  standing  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  this  water  should  be 
drawn  off  and  another  lot  put  in  and  the  washing  repeated. 
This  lot  should  be  drawn  off  completely  and  should  come 
away  rather  clear.  If  it  is  not  clear,  repeat  the  washing. 
The  object  in  washing  is  to  remove  all  the  buttermilk.  When 
the  buttermilk  is  left  in  the  butter  it  spoils  its  flavor  and  its 
keeping  quality.  The  wash  water  used  should  be  the  purest 
obtainable  and  should  have  a  temperature  about  the  same  as 
the  churning  temperature.  If  the  cream  has  been  churned 
too  warm  and  the  butter  comes  soft,  the  water  should  stand 
on  the  butter  for  some  time  until  it  hardens,  perhaps  an  hour. 
Water  too  cold  will  make  the  butter  lacking  in  flavor. 


BUTTER-MAKING 


317 


Working  the  Butter. — Butter  is  worked  by  removing  it 
from  the  churn  and  pressing  it  with  a  lever  or  paddle.  The 
purpose  is  to  remove 
surplus  water,  to  mix 
salt  with  the  butter,  and 
to  compact  the  gran- 
ules together  so  that  the 
butter  can  be  put  into 
packages  for  market 
or  use.  Butter  can  be 
worked  best  on  a  lever- 
worker.  (See  Fig.  76.) 
A  wooden  bowl  and 
paddle  are  often  used. 
It  should  always  be 
pressed  with  the  lever 
or  paddle.  A  sliding 
motion  destroys  the 
granular  structure  and 
makes  the  butter  salvy. 
A  temperature  of  from 
45°  F.  to  55°  F.  is  best. 
In  summer  it  is  not  easy  75     a  lever  butter-worker 

to  have  this  temoerature     ^^  courtesy  of  the  Wisconsin  College  of  Agriculture 

In  creameries  the  churning  is  done  by  mechanical  power 
and  the  butter  is  worked  without  taking  it  out  of  the  churn. 
The  amount  of  salt  added  to  the  butter  at  the  time  of 
working  varies,  but  is  usually  three-fourths  of  an  ounce  to  an 
ounce  per  pound  of  butter.  (A  good  platform  dairy  scales  is 
a  necessary  article.)  The  main  reason  for  adding  salt  to 
butter  is   to  improve   its  flavor.    Most  people  prefer  some 


318  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

salt  in  their  butter.  The  salt  used  should  be  uniformly  fine  in 
grain  and  dry,  and  should  be  scattered  evenly  over  the  butter 
and  worked  in  with  the  worker.  It  should  all  dissolve  com- 
pletely. Sometimes  butter  is  salted  by  using  the  salt  as  a  brine. 

Preparing  for  Market. — Country  butter  is  usually  put 
on  the  market  in  pound  prints,  being  moulded  out  with  a 
wooden  mould  which  puts  just  a  pound  in  a  package.  Butter 
is  also  made  into  large  rolls  or  packed  into  crocks  or  wooden 
tubs,  depending  upon  the  quantity.  The  pound  package  is 
the  most  desirable  form,  but  whatever  the  form  is  it  should 
be  neat  and  attractive.  If  the  package  is  wrapped  neatly 
in  a  sheet  of  parchment  paper  on  which  is  printed  the 
name  of  the  maker  or  his  farm,  it  will  help  the  sale  of  the 
butter.  Creamery  butter  is  usually  placed  in  butter  tubs  and 
later  made  up  into  pound  packages. 

Composition  of  Butter. — The  composition  of  butter  is  not 
always  the  same,  but  on  the  average  is  about  as  follows : 

Fat 83% 

Casein,  sugar,  and  ash 1% 

Salt 2.5% 

Water 13  5% 

It  is  unlawful  for  butter  to  contain  as  much  as  16  per 
cent,  or  more  of  water.  The  quality  of  butter  is  determined 
by  its  flavor,  texture,  color,  salt,  and  the  package.  Your 
Experiment  Station  will  be  glad  to  send  you  sample  score 
cards  and  explain  how  to  score  butter. 

In  the  successful  handling  of  milk,  making  of  butter,  and 
managing  a  dairy  business,  a  very  great  deal  must  be  learned 
by  experience.  One  who  studies  carefully  the  principles 
which  underlie  the  work  and  then  applies  them  in  a  practical 
way  is  sure  to  succeed. 


CHAPTER  XLIII 
MILK  PRODUCTS,  OTHER  THAN  BUtTER 

Besides  butter,  the  most  important  products  made  from 
milk  are  cheese,  condensed  milk,  and  ice-cream.  The  mak- 
ing of  these  products  is  the  work  of  experts.  In  this  chapter 
we  cannot  take  the  space  to  give  much  of  the  details  con- 
cerning their  manufacture. 

Cheese. — Cheese  is  a  milk  product  containing  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  milk  solids.  All  of  the  casein,  nearly  all  of  the 
fat,  and  about  two-thirds  of  the  ash  in  milk  are  to  be  found 
in  cheese.  The  albumen  and  milk-sugar  in  milk  are  entirely 
lost  in  cheese-making.  In  the  process  of  manufacture  the 
most  important  item  is  the  coagulating  of  the  casein.  In  ordi- 
nary milk  the  casein  is  partly  dissolved  and  partly  in  suspen- 
sion. Being  an  albuminous  compound,  it  is  easily  coagulated 
either  by  heat  or  by  acids.  In  cheese-making  an  acid  is  not 
used,  but  a  ferment,  which  has  a  similar  effect,  called  rennet. 
Rennet  is  obtained  from  the  lining  of  a  calf's  stomach.  In 
the  making  of  cottage  cheese  on  the  farm  heat  is  almost  always 
used  to  produce  coagulation,  but  considerable  lactic  acid  is 
also  necessary  before  coagulation  will  take  place. 

Cottage  Cheese  is  almost  always  a  home-made  article.  Sour 
skimmed  milk  is  set  on  the  stove  and  gently  heated  to  from 
85°  to  125°  F.  for  an  hour  or  more.  The  coagulated  part  or  curd 
then  appears  separated  from  the  watery  part  or  whey.    The 

319 


320  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

whey  is  separated  from  the  curd  by  pouring  off  and  by  strain- 
ing through  a  cloth.  Usually  the  mass  is  hung  up  in  the 
strainer  for  a  couple  of  hours  and  allowed  to  drain.  After 
draining  the  curd  is  broken  up  by  crushing  in  the  hand.  The 
curd  is  now  salted  to  suit  the  taste  and  is  ready  for  use.  Usu- 
ally before  serving,  a  small  amount  of  cream,  butter,  or  rich 
milk  is  mixed  with  it.  Some  persons  like  spices  mixed  with 
it  also.  Cottage  cheese  is  usually  served  fresh.  Cottage 
cheese  is  also  known  as  Dutch  cheese,  pot  cheese,  and 
schmierkase. 

Cheddar  Cheese. — While  most  of  the  cheese  in  America 
is  made  in  regular  cheese  factories,  in  sections  where  dairying 
is  the  principal  industry  cheese  is  often  made  on  the  farm. 
The  most  common  kind  is  that  known  as  cheddar  cheese  or 
some  modified  form  of  it.  The  name  cheddar  comes  from 
a  town  in  England  where  the  cheese  was  first  made  centuries 
ago. 

The  process  of  making  cheddar  cheese,  according  to  one  of 
the  best  authorities,*  is  briefly  as  follows: 

1.  Setting. — The  whole  milk  is  warmed  to  a  temperature 
of  82°  F.  and  ripened  to  the  right  degree  of  acidity,  which  is 
determined  by  an  acid  test.  Rennet  is  then  added  at  the  rate 
of  two  or  three  fluid  ounces  per  one  thousand  pounds  of  milk, 
and  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  milk.  The  rennet  coagulates 
the  milk  in  ten  to  fifteen  minutes,  and  in  about  thirty  minutes 
the  mass  is  ready  to  cut. 

2.  Cutting. — This  coagulated  mass  is  called  the  curd.  In 
order  to  remove  the  water  from  the  mass  it  is  necessary  to  cut 
the  curd  into  small  blocks.  This  is  done  by  knives  specially 
made  for  the  purpose.    The  cutting  is  done  crosswise,  length- 

*  Wing:  Milk  and  Its  Products. 


MILK   PRODUCTS,    OTHER  THAN   BUTTER  321 

wise,  and  horizontally.  After  the  cutting  the  mass  is  agitated 
gently  to  keep  the  cut  surfaces  from  uniting.  The  little  blocks 
shrink  rapidly  and  squeeze  out  the  watery  part.  This  is 
called  whey. 

3.  Cooking. — The  entire  mass  is  now  slowly  warmed  up  to 
a  temperature  of  98°  F.  This  has  the  effect  of  increasing  the 
lactic  acid  and  further  shrinking  the  cujd.  During  the  heat- 
ing the  mass  is  stirred  slowly  and  gently  at  first,  but  more 
vigorously  later.  When  the  mass  has  reached  98°  F.  stir- 
ring is  stopped  and  some  of  the  whey  may  be  drawn  off,  but 
enough  must  be  left  to  cover  the  curd.  When  the  curd  is 
tough  enough  to  stick  to  a  hot  iron  and  pull  out  in  fine 
threads  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long  it  is  ready  for  the  next  step. 

4.  Cheddaring,  or  Matting: — The  whey  is  now  drawn  off. 
The  curd  now  mats,  or  cheddars,  together  in  the  cheese  vat. 
When  it  is  well  matted  it  is  cut  into  blocks  about  eight  by 
eight  by  twelve  inches.  These  blocks  are  piled  two  deep  on 
top  of  each  other,  care  being  taken  to  put  the  outside  faces 
inside.  This  helps  the  draining  away  of  the  whey.  After 
a  time  the  blocks  are  piled  into  larger  piles,  and  later  these 
into  still  larger  piles,  each  time  putting  the  outside  surfaces 
inside.  During  this  time  the  temperature  is  kept  up  in  order 
to  aid  the  production  of  lactic  acid,  which  brings  about  vari- 
ous changes  in  the  curd.  The  curd  should  now  contain  so 
much  acid  that  threads  two  or  three  inches  long  will  pull  out 
when  applied  to  a  hot  iron. 

5.  Grinding. — By  this  time  the  whey  has  been  well  drained 
away  and  enough  lactic  acid  has  been  developed  so  that  the 
curd  is  ready  for  grinding.  This  is  done  in  order  that  the 
curd  may  be  salted  and  pressed  into  the  form  of  the  cheese. 
The  grinding  is  done  with  a  special  machine  called  a  curd- 


322  ARGICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

mill.    The  cut  particles  must  be  stirred  to  keep  them  from 
reuniting. 

6.  Salting  and  Pressing. — Salt  is  added  mainly  for  its 
effect  upon  the  flavor.  *  It  also  aids  in  making  the  curd  drier 
and  harder.  Coarse  salt  is  better  than  fine  salt.  It  should 
be  uniformly  distributed,  and  the  curd  stirred  until  the 
salt  has  dissolved.  During  this  time  the  temperature  has 
been  kept  up  until,  at  the  salting,  the  curd  has  a  temperature 
of  about  90°  F.  When  the  salt  is  added  the  curd  is  spread 
out  and  cools  off  to  about  80°  F. 

The  curd  is  now  put  into  a  press,  of  which  there  are  various 
kinds.  There  is  a  form  made  of  wood  or  metal  into  which 
the  curd  is  put,  after  first  lining  it  with  cheese-cloth.  There 
is  a  lid  called  the  follower  which  fits  just  inside  the  form.  The 
pressure  is  applied  to  this  and  it  squeezes  the  curd  into  a  com- 
pact mass.    Pressure  is  kept  up  for  twenty  hours  or  more. 

7.  Curing. — When  taken  from  the  press  the  mass  of  curd 
is  called  green  cheese  and  is  now  set  away  to  cure.  This  is 
done  on  shelves  in  a  room  where  the  temperature  is  about 
65°  to  75°  F.  During  the  curing  process  many  changes  take 
place  which  develop  the  flavor  and  make  the  cheese  digestible. 
In  four  to  six  weeks  th^  cheese  may  be  used,  but  it  is  better 
if  more  ripening  is  allowed,  and  will  continue  to  improve  up 
to  three  or  four  months,  after  which  if  it  is  kept  in  a  cool 
place  not  too  moist  the  cheese  may  be  kept  in  good  condition 
for  a  couple  of  years. 

What  has  been  said  about  the  process  of  making  cheddar 
cheese  applies  in  a  general  way  to  the  making  of  many  other 
varieties.  In  all  there  are  said  to  be  over  one  hundred  and 
fifty  kinds  of  cheese  manufactured  in  America  and  'Europe. 
When  a  cheese  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  water  it 


MILK  PRODUCTS,  OTHER  THAN  BUTTER     323 

is  known  as  a  soft  cheese.  There  are  several  varieties  of  this 
kind.  The  removal  of  most  of  the  moisture  makes  a  hard 
cheese,  and  this  is  the  common  kind.  When  a  cheese  is  made 
from  whole  milk  it  is  called  a  fidl-cream  cheese;  when  made 
from  skimmed  milk  it  is  known  as  skim-milk  cheese;  when 
made  from  skimmed  milk  or  whole  milk  to  which  other  fats 
than  butter-fats  have  been  added  it  is  a  jilled  cheese.  In  the 
manufacture  of  some  kinds  of  cheese  fermentation  is  allowed 
to  take  place  until  certain  well-defined  odors  are  noticeable. 
These  are  fermented  cheeses.  Limburger  cheese  is  an  exam- 
ple of  this  kind. 

Although  many  kinds  of  cheese  are  made  without  especial 
attention  to  cleanliness,  yet  all  that  was  said  concerning  care 
and  cleanliness  in  handling  milk,  cream,  and  butter  applies 
to  the  making  of  cheese,  and  especially  American  varieties. 

Condensed  Milk. — Condensed  milk  is  milk  from  which 
most  of  the  water  has  been  evaporated.  The  milk  is  evapo- 
rated in  copper  vacuum  pans  by  the  use  of  steam.  This  re- 
duces the  bulk  of  the  milk  about  two-thirds,  but  retains  all 
of  the  solids.  Condensed  milk  is  put  up  either  sweetened  or 
unsweetened.  It  is  used  largely  as  a  food  for  babies,  but  this 
use  is  not  desirable  unless  cow's  milk  of  good  quality  is  not 
obtainable.  Condensed  milk  is  also  used  by  confectioners,  in 
lumber  camps,  on  ocean  liners,  and  by  all  travellers  who  have 
to  carry  their  supplies  with  them.  In  the  making  of  con- 
densed milk  the  matter  of  cleanliness  reaches  its  highest 
perfection. 

There  is  also  a  product  called  milk-powder,  made  by  evapo- 
rating milk  to  dryness. 

Ice-Cream. — Ice-cream  is  made  from  rich  whole  milk  or 
from  rich  cream.    The  latter  is  the  better.    Ice-cream  consists 


324  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

of  milk  or  cream,  sugar,  eggs,  flavor,  and  sometimes  corn- 
starch or  gelatine,  prepared  according  to  recipe,  and  frozen. 
There  are  many  recipes;  some  require  fewer  than  the  above 
items,  others  more. 

Renovated  or  Process  Butter. — Renovated  butter  is 
made  from  bad  butter  which  has  been  bought  up  by  dealers. 
There  are  certain  factories  which  take  the  poor  butter  and 
melt  it,  clarify  it,  aerate  it,  ripen  it,  and  then  churn  it  with 
a  starter  of  fresh  milk,  cream,  or  skim-milk.  They  also 
remove  the  bad  odors  and  color  the  butter  attractively. 
For  a  time  much  of  this  worked-over  butter  was  sold  as 
creamery  butter,  a  fraud,  but  now  the  law  requires  it  to  be 
plainly  labelled  *' Renovated  Butter,"  and  also  collects  a  tax 
on  it.  This  is  done  in  order  to  encourage  the  making  of  good 
butter. 


CHAPTER  XLIV 
TESTING  MILK 

Milk  is  commonly  tested  for  two  purposes:  (1)  To  deter- 
mine whether  or  not  it  has  been  adulterated  with  water; 
(2)  to  determine  the  per  cent,  of  butter-fat. 

1.  As  was  mentioned  in  a  previous  chapter,  milk  is  heavier 
than  water,  ordinarily  .032  heavier,  that  is,  its  specific  gravity 
is  1.032.  It  is  very  rare  for  pure  milk  to  have  a  specific  grav- 
ity less  than  1.029.  If  water  has  been  put  into  milk  to  any 
extent,  the  specific  gravity  will  go  below  1.029.  An  instru- 
ment resembling  a  floating  thermometer  has  been  devised 
for  determining  the  specific  gravity  of  milk.  This  instru- 
ment is  called  a  lactometer.  The  glass  tube  is  graduated  some- 
what like  that  of  a  thermometer.  There  are  two  common 
forms  of  lactometers,  the  Board  of  Health  lactometer  and  the 
Quevenne  (Kwi-ven')  lactometer.  These  are  graduated  dif- 
ferently, but  give  the  same  results. 

When  the  lactometer  is  put  into  the  milk  it  will  sink  to  a 
certain  point.  The  Board  of  Health  lactometer  should  not 
sink  below  100,  the  Quevenne  not  below  29.  Then  by  read- 
ing the  figures  on  the  glass  tube  one  can  tell  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  milk  and  from  these  whether  the  milk  is  pure 
or  not.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the  lactometer  test  is 
not  absolutely  reliable,  but  in  any  case  of  doubt  further 
investigation  can  be  made. 

325 


326 


AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 


Lactometers  are  made  to  use  with  the  temperature  of  the 
milk  at  60°  F.  For  each  degree  above  this  .1  of  a  lactometer 
degree  is  added  to  the  reading,  or  subtracted,  if  the  tempera- 
ture is  below  60°  F.,  when  using  the  Quevenne  lactometer. 
When  using  the  Board  of  Health  lactometer  one  degree  of 


76,       A    BABCOCK   MILK   TESTEK    AND    TESTING    OUTFIT 


change  is  made  for  each  three  degrees  of  temperature.  The 
temperature  should  never  vary  much  from  60°  F.  for  good 
results. 

2.  There  have  been  several  schemes  devised  for  determin- 
ing the  per  cent,  of  fat  in  milk,  but  at  the  present  time  there 
is  practically  but  one  used  in  this  country.  This  is  known  as 
the  Babcock  test,  and  was  invented  by  Dr.  Babcock  of  the 
Wisconsin  Experiment  Station.  In  this  test  all  the  milk  solids 
except  the  fat  are  dissolved  by  sulphuric  acid,  then  by  means 
of  hot  water  and  centrifugal  force  the  fat  is  floated  on  the 


TESTING   MILK  327 

surface  of  the  fluid  and  read  off  in  the  graduated  neck  of  a 
specially  constructed  glass  bottle. 

For  making  the  test  17.6  cubic  centimeters  of  milk  is 
measured  out  with  a  marked  pipette  and  put  into  a  test 
bottle.  (See  Fig.  77  for  the  different  articles  used  in  making 
this  test).  Now  17.5  cubic  centimeters  of  sulphuric  acid  is 
measured  out  and  poured  into  the  test  bottle  in  such  a  way 
that  it  washes  down  any  milk  on  the  side  of  the  neck  and 
runs  under  the  milk  at  the  bottom  of  the  bottle.  The  sulphuric 
acid  curdles  the  milk  at  first,  but  the  curdled  part  is  soon 
dissolved.  The  sulphuric  acid  used  must  have  a  specific 
gravity  of  from  1.82  to  1.83. 

After  the  acid  has  been  added,  the  test  bottle  is  shaken  by 
hand  with  rotary  motion.  The  bottle  should  be  grasped  by 
the  neck  near  the  bulb,  and  care  should  be  taken  not  to  shake 
any  curd  up  into  the  neck.  The  mixing  of  the  acid  and  milk 
creates  a  good  deal  of  heat,  and  the  test  bottle  becomes  quite 
hot  and  the  contents  very  black.  When  the  shaking  has  gone 
far  enough  the  curdled  portion  has  all  dissolved,  and  the  con- 
tents are  uniformly  black  with  no  fragments  floating  in  it. 

The  test  bottle  along  with  others  is  now  set  in  the  pockets 
of  the  centrifuge  and  whirled  at  a  speed  of  900  to  1,000  revo- 
lutions per  minute.  Most  of  the  small  centrifuges  are  run  by 
hand,  while  the  large  ones  are  operated  by  steam.  The  whirl- 
ing is  kept  up  steadily  for  five  minutes.  The  revolving  is  then 
stopped  and  each  test  bottle  is  filled  to  the  neck  with  boiling 
hot  water.  They  are  then  whirled  again  for  two  minutes  at 
the  same  speed.  The  machine  is  again  stopped  and  the  bot- 
tles filled  with  more  hot  water  up  to  the  8  or  9  per  cent.  mark. 
Again  they  are  whirled  for  one  minute.  The  fat  has  now  all 
collected  into  the  neck  of  the  bottle  and  stands  out  distinctly 


328  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

from  the  rest  of  the  contents  and  is  ready  to  be  read.  The 
figures  opposite  the  long  marks  indicate  the  per  cent.,  while 
the  short  marks  indicate  tenths  of  one  per  cent.  The  reading 
is  done  by  subtracting  the  figure  at  the  bottom  of  the  fat 
column  from  that  at  the  extreme  top  of  the  column.  A  pair 
of  dividers  is  useful  to  aid  the  eye  in  reading  correctly.  The 
reading  should  be  done  quickly  while  the  fat  is  hot. 

For  the  testing  of  cream  a  bottle  with  a  large  neck  and 
graduated  up  to  35  per  cent,  or  more  is  used.  In  the  testing 
of  cream  18  grammes  is  weighed  into  the  bottles.  For  skim- 
milk  and  buttermilk  a  bottle  with  two  necks  is  used.  One  is 
large,  for  putting  the  acid  and  milk  into,  and  the  other  is  quite 
small,  and  in  this  the  fat  gathers  and  is  read  off  in  hun- 
dredths of  one  per  cent. 

The  taking  of  the  sample  for  testing  is  a  very  important 
matter.  In  the  case  of  whole  milk  it  is  best  to  take  a  sample 
as  soon  as  the  milk  is  drawn  from  the  cow,  and  in  that  case 
the  milk  should  be  poured  from  one  bucket  to  another  two 
or  three  times  in  order  to  get  it  thoroughly  mixed.  If  the 
milk  has  become  cold  and  the  cream  has  risen  it  will  take  a 
great  deal  of  pouring  and  mixing  to  get  the  fat  globules  com- 
pletely distributed  again.  The  sample  may  be  put  into  a  small 
bottle.  The  sample  for  testing  is  taken  from  the  larger 
sample  by  means  of  a  pipette  and  put  into  the  test  bottle. 
The  testing  is  done  at  convenience.  The  same  care  in  mixing 
should  be  taken  with  cream  or  skim-milk. 

If  it  is  desired  to  get  an  average  of  the  fat  produced  by  a 
cow  in  a  week,  without  testing  each  milking,  a  small  sample 
is  taken  at  each  milking  and  put  into  a  pint  fruit-far.  A  bit  of 
bichromate  of  potash  or  corrosive  sublimate  should  be  put 
into  the  bottle  to  keep  the  milk  from  souring.    If  it  sours  a  fair 


TESTING  MILK  329 

sample  cannot  be  taken  for  testing.  Such  samples  are  called 
composite  samples.  They  are  tested  at  the  end  of  a  week  and 
show  the  average  per  cent,  of  fat.  The  composite  samples 
are  used  at  creameries  where  each  patron's  milk  is  tested. 


CHAPTER  XLV 
ABOUT  BEES 

It  is  hoped  that  every  one  who  reads  this  chapter  will  try  to 
find  out  more  about  bees  than  is  told  here.  Bees  are  most 
interesting  and  valuable  insects.  Many  a  person  has  spent 
his  entire  life  in  studying  bees  and  working  with  them.  They 
have  been  kept,  studied,  and  written  about  from  the  earliest 
times.  Every  one  likes  honey  to  eat,  and  every  farm  could 
easily  support  some  bees  and  furnish  the  delicious  food  for 
the  farmer's  table. 

Bees  can  be  kept  in  various  places.  An  orchard  used  as  a 
sheep  pasture  is  an  ideal  place  for  bees.  The  sheep  will  keep 
the  grass  short  and  the  trees  give  shade.  It  is  desirable  to  keep 
the  grass  or  weeds  from  growing  tall  in  front  of  the  hive,  as 
bees  returning  home  heavily  laden  will  become  entangled  in 
the  tall  grass  and  be*unable  to  get  into  the  hive.  Bees  have 
been  successfully  kept  on  the  roofs  of  large  buildings  in  cities. 
Many  persons  living  in  the  city  keep  bees  in  their  back 
yards. 

When  America  was  first  colonized  there  were  no  honey- 
bees north  of  Mexico.  The  early  settlers  brought  with  them 
what  are  known  as  the  black  or  German  bees,  and  the  wild 
bees  now  found  are  descendants  from  swarms  which  escaped. 
Some  years  ago  bees  from  other  countries  were  brought  here. 
The  Italian  bees  have  met  with  the  most  favor.     In  fact, 

330 


ABOUT  BEES 


331 


scarcely  any  other  kind  is  now  kept.  Some  of  the  other  races 
of  bees  are  Cyprian  from  Cyprus;  Syrian  from  the  Holy 
Land;  Egyptian  from  Egypt;  and  Corniolan  from  Corniola, 
Austria.  The  Italians  are  so  much  liked  because  they  are 
gentle  and  do  not  often  sting.  When  Italians  become  crossed 
with  other  races,  the  hybrids  are  usually  very  nervous  and 


77.       LOCATION    OF    APIAliY 
The  trees  give  shade  and  the  fence  and  building  protect  from  wind. 

irritable.  The  Cyprians  probably  gather  more  honey  than  any 
other  race.  There  is  record  of  one  colony  of  these  bees  hav- 
ing gathered  one  thousand  pounds  of  honey  in  one  season. 

A  colony  or  swarm  of  bees  at  the  beginning  of  the  honey 
season  usually  consists  of  30,000  to  40,000  worker  bees,  a 
queen,  and  perhaps  several  hundred  drones.  Besides  these 
there  are  several  combs  containing  young  bees  not  yet  fully 
developed. 

The  honey-bee  is  developed  from  an  egg  just  like  other  in- 
sects.   (See  Chapter  XXVII.)    The  queen  bee  lays  the  egg  in 


332  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

the  bottom  of  a  six-sided  cell.  The  egg  hatches  in  three  days; 
the  larva  is  fed  by  the  nurse  bees  for  five  days;  then  the  larva 
turns  to  a  pupa  and  remains  in  this  condition  for  thirteen 
days;  and  at  the  end  of  twenty-one  days  from  the  laying  of 
the  egg  the  young  bee  comes  out  of  the  cell.  In  a  couple  of 
days  it  is  ready  to  begin  its  life  work.     Queen  bees  hatch  out 


78.   SHOWING  QUEEN,  WORKER,  AND  DRONE 

in  about  sixteen  days  from  the  laying  of  the  egg,  while  for 
drones  the  time  is  twenty-four  days. 

The  worker  bees  compose  the  majority  of  the  hive.  The 
first  work  for  the  worker  bee  after  it  is  developed  is  to  act  as 
a  nurse  and  feed  the  other  larval  bees  in  their  cells.  The  food 
consists  of  a  kind  of  bee  milk  secreted  from  glands  in  the 
head  of  the  nurse.  On  the  third  day  honey  is  added,  and  a 
little  later  pollen,  and  at  the  end  the  larva  receives  practically 
nothing  but  pollen.     After  acting  as  a  nurse  for  a  week  or 


ABOUT  BEES  333 

more,  the  young  worker  begins  to  take  short  flights  outside 
of  the  hive,  as  though  it  were  taking  exercise.  Finally,  after 
a  couple  of  weeks  spent  in  learning  household  duties,  the 
young  bee  begins  field  work  in  gathering  nectar  and  honey. 
All  worker  bees  are  undeveloped  females.  The  life  of  a 
worker  is  about  one  and  a  half  to  two  months  during  the  busy 
season,  so  the  supply  of  workers  must  be  constantly  replen- 
ished. 

The  queen  bee  is  hatched  from  the  same  kind  of  egg  as 
the  workers  and  is  fed  the  same  food  at  the  start,  but  the  rich 
bee  milk  is  continued  all  through  the  feeding  period,  so  that 
the  queen  larva  grows  larger  and  develops  faster  than  the 
others.  After  she  hatches  out  she  runs  about  over  the  combs 
for  exercise  and  looks  for  other  queens  or  queen  cells.  If  two 
queens  meet  there  is  a  fight  and  it  continues  until  one  is  dead. 
If  other  queen  cells  are  found  the  larv£e  are  stung  to  death. 
After  establishing  her  supremacy  the  queen  bee  leaves  the 
hive  to  meet  some  male,  a  drone,  in  the  open  air.  Mating 
takes  place  on  the  wing.  After  this  marriage  flight  the  queen 
returns  to  the  hive,  never  to  leave  it  again  unless  it  be  to  go 
with  a  swarm.  She  sets  to  work  at  once  laying  eggs.  She 
deposits  a  single  egg  at  the  bottom  of  each  empty  cell.  In 
busy  times  a  queen  can  lay  as  many  as  three  thousand  eggs 
in  a  day.  A  queen  bee  lives  four  or  five  years,  but  her  great- 
est usefulness  is  during  the  first  two  or  three  years. 

The  drone  is  the  male  bee.  There  is  usually  a  large  num- 
ber of  these  hatched  during  a  season,  although  not  nearly  so 
many  as  there  are  of  workers.  The  drone  does  no  work.  He 
is  not  fitted  by  nature  for  the  carrying  of  pollen  nor  the 
gathering  of  honey,  so  he  must  live  off  the  stores  of  the  hive. 
This  is  permitted  so  long  as  the  honey  supply  from  flowers  is 


334  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

plentiful,  but  when  this  decreases  the  worker  bees  sting  the 
drones  to  death  and  throw  them  out  the  door  of  the  hive.  The 
drone  has  no  sting  and  cannot  defend  himself.  It  is  said 
that  the  antennae  of  the  drone  has  37,800  little  smelling 
organs.* 

Honey  is  made  from  the  nectar  of  flowers,  a  drop  or  more 
of  which  is  found  in  the  base  of  the  corolla  of  the  flower.    The 


79.      A   MASS   OF   HONEY-COMB 

bee  sucks  this  into  a  honey  sac  inside  its  body  and  carries  it 
to  the  hive  where  other  w^orkers  take  it,  evaporate  some  of  the 
water,  add  certain  substances,  and  deposit  it  in  the  honey 
cells.  These  cells  are  not  capped  over  as  soon  as  they  are 
full,  but  the  honey  is  allowed  to  "ripen"  first.  A  honey-bee 
will  collect  honey  from  flowers  within  a  radius  of  two  or  three 
miles  from  the  hive.  If  there  are  many  flowers  of  the  same 
kind  in  blossom  at  one  time,  the  bees  will  collect  from  only 
*  Comstock :  How  to  Keep  Bees. 


ABOUT   BEES  335 

one  kind  while  they  last.  In  this  way  honey  is  made  from  the 
nectar  of  just  one  kind  of  flowers  at  a  time,  and  we  get  sweet- 
clover  honey,  or  white-clover  honey,  or  buckwheat  honey, 
according  to  the  kind  of  flower  drawn  from.  When  there  are 
only  a  few  flowers  of  one  kind  the  honey  is  made  from  the 
nectar  of  all  kinds  of  flowers. 

The  worker  also  gathers  the  pollen  from  flowers  into  a 


80.      A   MODERN   BEE-HIVE   AND    ITS   PARTS 

"pollen  basket"  on  her  hind  legs.  This  is  carried  to  the  hive 
and  made  into  bee-bread  and  used  for  feeding  larvae. 

Bees  also  gather  a  substance  called  "bee-glue"  from  the 
buds  of  trees.  This  "bee-glue"  is  properly  called  propolis 
and  is  used  for  stopping  up  holes  or  cracks  in  the  hive.  The 
whole  inner  surface  of  the  hive  is  also  coated  over  with  this 
substance,  and  movable  parts  are  stuck  together  with  it. 

The  amount  of  honey  which  a  swarm  of  bees  will  produce 


336  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

in  a  season  will  depend  largely  upon  the  supply  of  flowers  and 
the  vigor  of  the  swarm.  A  strong  swarm  in  a  good  season  will 
produce  a  surplus  of  20  pounds  of  honey  in  the  comb,  or  30 
to  35  pounds  of  extracted  honey.*  To  extract  honey,  the 
combs  are  taken  out,  the  caps  carefully  cut  off  the  cells  and 
then  the  decapped  combs  are  whirled  in  a  centrifugal  machine 
called  an  extractor.    The  empty  combs  are  then  replaced  in 


8l.   AN  APIARY  IN  WINTER  QUARTERS 

the  hive  and  the  bees  can  go  to  work  filling  the  empty  cells 
at  once,  thus  saving  the  time  of  making  new  combs. 

Almost  any  kind  of  empty  box  can  be  used  for  a  bee- 
hive, but  where  bee-keeping  is  done  properly  modern  hives 
are  used.  A  good  hive  is  a  box-like  affair  with  a  removable 
top  and  bottom.  An  opening,  a  small  slot,  is  made  at  the 
bottom  in  one  side  for  the  bees  to  enter.  There  should  be 
a  ledge  by  this  opening  for  the  bees  to  alight  on  when  return- 
ing to  the  hive.    Inside  the  box  are  hung  frames  containing 

*  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  59. 


ABOUT  BEES  337 

honeyKJombs.  These  the  bees  will  use  for  storing  honey  and 
pollen,  and  for  brood  cells  for  the  young  larvae.  They  will 
also  build  additional  cells  as  needed.  When  these  frames 
have  become  filled  with  honey  and  brood,  a  section  called  a 
super  can  be  put  on  top  of  the  main  box  and  the  top  placed  on 
it.    This  super  may  contain  small  frames  which  when  filled 


HIVING   A   SWARM   OF   BEES 


will  hold  one  pound  of  honey  each.  The  bees  soon  begin  to 
fill  the  frames  in  this  super,  and  as  soon  as  all  frames  are  full 
the  super  can  be  removed  and  replaced  by  another.  In  re- 
moving these  supers  the  bees  are  driven  down  into  the  lower 
box  by  smoke  or  are  brushed  off  gently  with  a  brush. 

In  cold  climates  bees  will  need  some  protection  in  winter. 
Frequently  this  is  done  by  shedding  over  with  boards  and 
covering  with  cornstalks  or  straw,  but  professional  bee-keep- 


338  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

ers  usually  pack  the  hives  inside  a  larger  frame,  or  pack  the 
top  and  sides  with  papers  or  straw  matting.  The  doorway 
should  always  be  left  uncovered  so  that  bees  can  get  out  on 
warm  days.  Some  keepers  store  their  bees  in  cellars  or  sheds. 
In  spring  all  these  coverings  should  be  removed. 

Usually  in  June,  when  the  queen  is  very  active  in  laying 
eggs,  the  hive  gets  so  full  of  young  bees  that  there  is  no 
longer  room  and  swarming  takes  place.  When  a  swarm 
comes  out  it  usually  settles  on  the  limb  of  a  tree  near  by,  and 
if  undisturbed  after  a  time  it  will  take  flight  and  go  away  to 
some  hollow  tree  or  crevice  previously  determined  upon. 
After  a  swarm  has  settled,  a  hive  should  be  brought  and 
placed  near  with  a  sheet  under  it.  The  limb  should  be  cut 
off  carefully  and  the  swarm  jarred  off  in  front  of  the  hive  door. 
If  the  limb  is  near  the  ground  it  is  not  necessary  to  cut  it. 
As  soon  as  the  queen  enters  the  hive  the  rest  follow  and  settle 
in  their  new  home.  The  hive  can  later  be  removed  to  the  place 
where  it  is  to  stand.  The  hive  used  should  be  cool,  as  bees 
will  not  enter  a  hot  hive.  There  should  be  in  the  hive  some 
frames  containing  empty  comb  for  the  bees  to  go  to  work  on. 

There  is  much  more  to  be  written  about  bees  but  it  cannot 
be  said  here.  One  thing  is  to  be  kept  in  mind:  bees  should 
always  be  handled  gently  and  without  any  show  of  fear. 
The  Italian  races  of  bees  will  rarely  sting  if  carefully  handled. 
Bee-keepers  frequently  wear  veils  and  gloves  to  protect  them- 
selves while  handling  their  bees. 


CHAPTER  XLVI 
POULTRY 

ORIGIN    AND    BREEDS    OF    POULTRY 

The  term  'poultry  is  applied  to  chickens,  ducks,  geese,  tur- 
keys, guineas,  and  peafowls.  While  the  last  two  mentioned 
are  of  very  little  importance,  the  other  four  are  much  more  so 
than  is  generally  supposed.  The  Secretary  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  states  that  the  value  of  the 
poultry  and  eggs  produced  on  farms  in  1907  was  more  than 
six  hundred  million  dollars;  also,  that  the  poultry  products 
are  worth  more  than  the  wheat  and  perhaps  as  much  as  the 
hay  raised  in  the  United  States. 

Probably  all  kinds  of  poultry,  with  the  exception  of  turkeys, 
had  their  origin  in  Asia.  The  so-called  jungle  fowl  of  India 
is  thought  to  be  the  original  of  our  chickens.  Very  much  has 
been  done  by  poultrymen  in  the  production  of  new  breeds 
and  the  improvement  of  old  ones.  Chickens  have  received 
more  attention  than  ducks  and  turkeys,  and  geese  have  had 
scarcely  any  study. 

Chickens. — In  the  revised  edition  of  Farmers'  Bulletin 
No.  51,  it  is  stated  that  there  are  104  standard  varieties  of 
chickens  in  this  country.  Besides  these  there  are  several 
miscellaneous  varieties.  A  standard  variety  is  one  which  con- 
forms to  the  description  of  that  variety  by  the  American 
Poultry  Association.     Perhaps  the  best  way  to  classify  this 

339 


340  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

large  number  of  varieties  is  as  in  the  bulletin  mentioned: 
1.  American.  2.  Asiatic.  3.  Mediterranean.  4.  English. 
5.  Polish.  6.  Dutch.  7.  French.  8.  Game  and  Game 
Bantam.  9.  Oriental  Game  and  Bantam  class.  10.  Orna- 
mental Bantam  class.    11.  Miscellaneous. 

These  classes  may  also  be  arranged  according  to  their  use- 
fulness, but  in  so  classifying  it  is  necessary  to  name  individ- 


83.   PLYMOUTH  ROCK  COCK  AND  PULLET 

ual  breeds  in  some  cases.  The  classes  according  to  useful- 
ness are  as  follows:  1.  General  purpose,  including  the  Ameri- 
can class,  the  Orpingtons,  and  Houdans.  These  breeds  are 
both  good  egg  and  good  meat  producers.  2.  The  meat  or 
table  breeds,  including  the  Asiatic  class,  the  Dorkings,  and 
the  Indian  Games.  3.  The  egg  breeds,  including  the  Medi- 
terranean class,  the  Dutch  class,  and  the  Red  Caps.  4.  The 
ornamental  breeds,  including  all  the  remaining  classes  and 
breeds. 


POULTRY 


341 


1.  The  American  class  comprises  the  Plymouth  Rocks, 
Wyandottes,  Rhode  Island  Reds,  Javas,  Buckeyes,  and 
American  Dominique.  There  are  two  or  three  or  more  vari- 
eties each  of  most  of  these  breeds,  as,  for  example,  there  are 
six  varieties  of  Plymouth 

Rocks,  the  Barred,  Buff, 
White,  Silver  -  pencilled. 
Partridge,  and  Colum- 
bian. Of  this  class  the 
first  three  breeds  are  best 
known  and  most  widely 
raised.  There  are  prob- 
ably more  Plymouth 
Rock  chickens  raised 
than  any  other  breed. 
The  breeds  in  the  Ameri- 
can class  are  considered 
general  -  purpose  breeds 
because  they  are  all  excel- 
lent  layers   and    at   the 

same  time  are  good  table  fowls.    The  breeds  in  the  Ameri- 
can class  are  all  of  American  origin. 

2.  The  Asiatic  class  contains  the  Brahmas,  Cochins,  and 
Langshans.  Each  of  these  breeds  has  two  or  more  varieties. 
This  class  contains  the  largest  breeds  of  chickens.  They  are 
more  valued  for  their  meat  production  than  for  their  eggs, 
although  they  are  fair  layers.  They  are  more  inclined  to  brood 
than  most  breeds  and  make  excellent  mothers.  Fowls  of  these 
breeds  have  their  shanks  and  toes  more  or  less  covered  with 
feathers. 

3.  The    Leghorn,    Minorca,    Andalusian,    Ancona,    and 


84. 


A   RHODE   ISLAND    RED 


342 


AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 


Spanish  breeds  belong  in  the  Mediterranean  class.  These 
are  of  European  origin,  mostly  from  along  the  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea.    The  Leghorn  and  Minorca  families  are 

best  known  and  most 
widely  distributed.  The 
breeds  of  this  class,  and 
especially  the  Leghorns 
and  Minorcas,  are  fa- 
mous as  egg-producers. 
Practically  all  of  the 
breeds  in  this  class  lay 
white-shelled  eggs,  while 
the  eggs  of  nearly  all  the 
breeds  in  the  other 
classes  have  tinted  shells. 
The  Mediterranean 
breeds  are  smaller  in 
size  than  any  others,  ex- 
cept those  in  Classes  8, 
9,  10,  and  n.  They  are 
non-sitters,  that  is,  they 
rarely  want  to  sit,  and 
this  is  a  desirable  trait  where  one  wants  eggs. 

4.  The  English  breeds  are  the  Dorkings,  Red  Caps,  and 
Orpingtons.  The  Dorking  is  the  oldest  breed  of  chickens. 
These  fowls  have  five  toes  on  each  foot,  a  condition  not  found 
in  any  other  breed  except  the  Houdan.  The  Red  Caps  are  also 
an  old  breed.  They  have  too  large  a  comb  to  become  popu- 
lar as  a  farm  fowl.  They  are  good  layers  and  their  flesh  is  of 
excellent  quality.  They  are  non-sitters.  The  Orpington  breed 
is  one  of  the  latest  breeds,  and  because  of  its  high  quality  as 


BUFF   COCHIN 

Contrast  the  Cochin  with  Plymouth  Rock  and 
Rhode  Island  Red 


POULTRY 


343 


an  egg  and  flesh  producer  has  gained  a  great  reputation. 
In  1908  Madame  Paderewski,  wife  of  the  famous  pianist, 
paid  Mr.  Ernest  Kellerstrass,  of  Kansas  City,  Missouri,  $7,500 
for  five  White  Orpingtons.  At  the  same  time  Mr.  Keller- 
strass refused  $2,500  for  a  prize  hen  of  this  breed. 

5.  The  Polish  class  is  composed  of  one  breed  of  which 
there  are  Several  varieties.  This  class  probably  had  its  origin 
in  Poland.  It  is  an  ornamental  rather  than  useful  class, 
although  Polish  hens  are  fair  layers.  The  head  of  both  the 
hen  and  cock  has  a  large  crest,  or  top-knot,  of  feathers,  so 
large  oftentimes  as  to  hin- 
der  the  seeing  of  the 
bird. 

6.  The  Hamburg  breed, 
of  which  there  are  six 
varieties,  represents  the 
Dutch  class  in  this  coun- 
try. They  are  excellent 
layers  and  have  become  a 
popular  breed. 

7.  The  best-known  of 
the  French  breeds  is  the 
Houdan.  Besides  the  Hou- 
dan  the  Crevecoeurs,  La 
Fleche,  and  Faverolles  be- 
long to  this  class.  All  but 
the  La  Fleche  are  large. 
They  are  fair  layers  and 
good  table  fowls.    The  Houdans  and  Crevecoeurs  have  crests. 

8  and  9.  The  various  breeds  included  in  the  game  class  are 
fair  layers  and  good  table  fowls.    Those  known  as  Pit  Game 


86.     PRIZE  WINNING  BROWN  LEGHORN 
HEN 


344 


AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 


are  very  well  adapted  to  the  farm.    The  Exhibition  Games 
are  considered  not  quite  so  good  for  the  farm,  not  being  hardy. 

The  Game  Bantams  are 
simply  dwarf  Exhibition 
Games  and  are  not 
profitable  for  the  farm. 

10.  The  Ornamental 
Games  are  of  several 
varieties.  They  are  kept 
mainly  as  pets  and  are 
not  satisfactory  as  lay- 
ers or  table  fowls. 

11.  The  Miscellane- 
ous class  comprises  sev- 
eral varieties  little 
known  in  this  country 
and  kept  mainly  as  cu- 
riosities. The  Sultans 
have  a  remarkable  crest. 
The  Silkies  have  soft, 

loose,  fluffy  feathers  standing  out  in  all  directions  from  the 
body.  The  feathers  of  the  Frizzles  curve  upward  and  back- 
ward at  the  end  and  give  the  birds  a  very  odd  appearance. 
Ducks. — It  is  said  that  more  ducks  are  raised  in  China 
than  anywhere  else  in  the  world  and  that  the  United  States 
stands  next  to  China  in  duck-production.  There  are  ten 
standard  varieties  raised  in  the  United  States ;  namely,  Ayles- 
bury, Rouen,  Pekin,  Cayuga,  Call,  East  India,  Indian  Run- 
ner, Blue  Swedish,  Muscovy,  and  Crested  White.  The  last 
is  mainly  ornamental,  the  Call  and  East  India  are  bantams, 
while  the  Pekin,  Rouen,  Indian  Runner,  and  Aylesbury  are 


87.       A    BUFF    ORPINGTON    HEN 


POULTRY 


345 


A    PAIR    OF    PEKIN    DUCKS 


the  most  popular    and 

profitable.  ThePekinis 

the  one  mostly  raised  on 

the  duck  ranches.  The 

Indian  Runner  duck  is 

the  best  layer  of  the  duck 

breeds    and    is     being 

kept   more    and    more 

for  egg-production.  It  is 

thought  that  all  breeds  of 

ducks,  except  the  Mus- 
covy,   originated    from 

the  wild  Mallard  duck. 

The  Muscovy  duck  is 

quite  distinct  from  all 

others  and  its  origin  is  not  definitely  known,  but  is  believed 

to  have  been  in  Peru.    This  breed  is  rather  bad-tempered. 

Geese. — Geese  have 
not  received  much  at- 
tention by  poultrymen 
and  the  different  breeds 
are  not  very  distinct. 
There  are  five  popular 
breeds :  Toulouse,  Emb- 
den,  Chinese,  African, 
and  Wild,  or  Canada, 
Goose.  The  last-named 
has  not  been  fully  do- 
mesticated and  has  to 
89.    A  TOULOUSE  GANDER  bc  kcpt  coufincd.  With 

First  prize  at   Madison  Square  Garden,  i.L,_      o-wr»oT-wf J^n      rwf      iVto. 

New  York  City,  Poultry  Show  tUC      CXCeptlOn      Ot      tHC 


346 


AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 


Wild  Goose,  the  different  breeds  of  geese  originated  in  the 
Old  World.    The  Toulouse  and  Embden  are  most  popular. 

The  production  of  geese 
for  commercial  pur- 
poses is  on  the  increase 
in  the  United  States. 

Turkeys. — The  only 
domestic  animal  on  the 
farm  of  strictly  Ameri- 
can origin  is  the  turkey. 
There  are  three  species 
of  wild  turkeys  in  Amer- 
ica: 1.  A  species  found 
mainly  in  the  north- 
eastern United  States 
and  now  almost  extinct. 

2.  A  species  in  Mexico. 

3.  A  species  in  Hondu- 
ras and  Central  Amer- 
ica. It  is  believed  that 
the  Mexican  variety 
was  carried  to  England 

and  Spain  by  the  early  explorers  and  later  brought  back 
again  by  the  early  colonists.  With  these  common  turkeys 
the  northern  wild  turkey  interbred  and  from  the  cross 
the  Bronze  turkey  was  originated.  This  is  the  largest  and 
most  popular  variety  of  turkeys.  The  other  breeds  are  the 
Narragansett,  Black,  White  Holland,  Buff,  and  Bourbon  Red. 
The  last  three  are  also  popular  and  are  valuable  market  birds. 
Guineas  and  Peafowls. — The  guinea  came  from  western 
Africa.    There  are  two  varieties,  the  Pearl  and  the  White. 


90.       A    BRONZE    TURKEY 


POULTRY  347 

The  White  is  a  sport  from  the  Pearl.  There  is  a  growing  de- 
mand for  guineas  in  the  markets  of  large  cities  to  supply  the 
demand  for  game  birds.  The  guinea  flesh  has  a  flavor  not 
easily  distinguished  from  that  of  grouse  or  pheasant.  A  few 
guineas  on  the  farm,  by  reason  of  the  noise  which  they  make, 
are  a  good  protection  from  hawks  and  chicken  thieves. 

The  Peafowl  has  no  commercial  value  whatever  and  is 
kept  entirely  as  an  ornament. 


CHAPTER  XLVII 
CARE  OF  POULTRY 

1.  Hatching. — The  first  step  in  the  production  of  young 
poultry  is  to  have  fertile  eggs.  The  best  eggs  for  hatching 
are  obtained  in  the  spring  months,  as  this  is  the  natural  mat- 
ing season  for  birds.  Eggs  from  birds  which  have  plenty  of 
range  for  exercising  usually  hatch  better  than  those  from 
confined  birds.  Proper  feeding  is  also  important,  but  this 
will  be  spoken  of  in  another  paragraph.  In  poultry-raising 
as  with  all  other  live  stock,  the  breeding  animals  should  be 
the  best  that  can  be  had  and  they  should  be  in  perfect  health. 

There  are  two  methods  of  hatching,  the  natural  and  the 
artificial.  The  natural  method  is  the  one  commonly  used  on 
the  farm  and  consists  in  giving  eggs  to  the  hen  and  allowing 
her  to  sit  on  them  the  necessary  length  of  time.  The  period 
of  incubation  is  as  follows:  chickens,  21  days;  ducks,  26 
days;  geese,  30  days;  turkeys,  27  to  29  days;  and  guineas 
26  to  28  days.  Fresh  eggs  will  hatch  a  little  earlier  than  eggs 
not  fresh.  The  chicken  hen  is  often  used  for  hatching  the 
eggs  of  the  other  kinds  of  poultry,  although  it  is  usually  best 
to  let  the  turkey  hen  hatch  her  own  eggs. 

Artificial  incubation  is  done  in  an  incubator.  This  is  a 
specially  constructed  box  having  compartments  into  which 
the  eggs  are  put.  These  are  kept  warm  by  an  oil  lamp.  The 
temperature  used  is  103°  F.,  this  being  the  temperature  of 

348 


CARE   OF  POULTRY 


349 


a  sitting  hen.  Incubators  are  of  all  sizes  and  are  used  mainly 
by  persons  raising  poultry  on  a  large  scale.  Directions  for 
operating  the  incubator  are  always  supplied  by  the  manufact- 
urer and  should  be  closely  followed. 

In  the  natural  method  the  little  chicks  are  cared  for  and 
kept  warm  by  the  hen,  but  in  the  artificial  method  the  young 


91. 


AN  INCUBATOR 


chicks  must  be  kept  warm  by  an  artificial  mother,  called  a 
brooder.  Brooders  are  variously  constructed,  but  are  usually 
of  two  parts,  one  warmed  by  an  oil  lamp,  for  sleeping,  and 
another  warmed  by  the  sun  through  glass,  for  a  runway. 
After  the  chicks  are  a  few  weeks  old  they  can  get  along  with- 
out extra  heat.  There  has  recently  been  invented  a  brooder 
known  as  the  "lampless"  brooder.    It  keeps  the  chicks  warm 


CARE   OF   POULTRY  351 

without  artificial  heat  and  is  being  used  successfully  by  many 
poultrymen. 

2.  Housing. — All  kinds  of  poultry  do  best  when  they  have 
full  liberty,  as  this  is  their  natural  state,  but  it  is  often  neces- 
sary to  keep  them  yarded.  In  such  cases  there  should  be  many 
yards  and  few  fowls  in  a  flock.  Not  more  than  25  chickens 
should  be  kept  together,  and  15  is  a  better  number.  A  house 
having  a  floor  measurement  of  10  by  12  feet  and  a  runway 
of  20  by  100  feet  is  desirable  for  such  a  flock.  In  locating 
houses  and  yards  one  should  seek  a  southern  exposure.  This 
gives  the  largest  amount  of  sunshine  and  shields  somewhat 
from  the  winds.  The  houses  and  yards  should  have  good 
drainage  and  be  kept  thoroughly  clean.  It  is  difficult  to  keep 
chickens  that  are  penned  up  free  from  lice.  Dusting-boxes 
filled  with  road  dust  should  be  provided.  A  large  box  accom- 
modating several  hens  at  a  time  is  best.  The  hens  should 
also  be  dusted  with  insect  powder  occasionally.  During  the 
summer,  if  hens  have  freedom,  they  will  provide  their  own 
dusting-places,  but  in  winter  even  free  hens  should  have  a 
box  of  dust. 

The  chicken  mite  is  also  a  troublesome  insect.  Unlike  the 
louse,  the  mite  stays  on  the  roosting-place  in  the  daytime  and 
feeds  on  the  bodies  at  night.  Painting  the  roosts  with  some 
one  of  the  coal-tar  dips  will  destroy  the  mite. 

3.  Feeding. — In  the  feeding  of  poultry,  as  in  the  feeding  of 
other  live  stock,  the  general  principles  mentioned  in  the  chap- 
ter on  Feeding  apply.  Young  birds  and  laying  hens  need 
a  ration  with  a  narrow  nutritive  ratio,  while  fattening  birds 
require  a  ration  having  a  wide  nutritive  ratio.  Laying  hens 
should  have  grain,  vegetables,  and  animal  food.  During 
summer,  if  they  have  freedom,  the  hens  will  supply  their  own 


352  AGRICULTURE   FOR   COMMON  SCHOOLS 

vegetable  food  from  the  grass  and  their  animal  food  from  the 
insects  which  they  can  catch.  Some  mixed  grain  consisting 
of  corn,  kafir  corn,  and  millet  seed  should  be  fed  in  addition. 
In  winter  the  vegetables  can  be  supplied  from  cabbage  and 
beets  and  the  animal  food  from  beef  scrap.  The  grain  feed 
in  winter  can  be  largely  of  corn,  but  wheat  screenings,  kafir 
corn,  oats,  and  millet  seed  should  also  be  given.  During  cold 
weather  a  mash  made  from  equal   parts  of  corn-meal  and 


93.       THIS  DOZEN  OF  BLACK  MINORCA  EGGS  WON  THE  FIRST 

PRIZE  AT  THE  LEBANON,    IND.,    EGG   SHOW,    1908. 

THEY   WEIGHED    32|  OUNCES 

wheat  bran  and  a  small  quantity  of  beef  scrap  is  a  good  feed 
for  morning.  All  poultrymen  prefer  to  feed  grain  in  the 
evening.  For  hens  kept  in  confinement  such  food  as  they 
could  get  when  running  at  large  should  be  supplied  as  fully 
as  possible.  Confined  hens  should  have  access  to  plenty  of 
sand  and  gravel.  Ground  oyster-shells  and  cracked  charcoal 
are  also  essential.  Hens  running  at  large  can  supply  them- 
selves with  grit,  but  the  oyster-shells  and  charcoal  should 
be  at  hand  for  them  also.  When  grain  is  fed  it  should  be 
thrown  into  straw  or  leaves,  especially  in  winter,  so  that  the 
hens  will  have  to  scratch  for  it.  This  gives  them  exercise 
and  warms  them  up.    Fresh  and  clean  water  is  one  of  the 


CARE   OF   POULTRY  353 

most  essential  things  for  laying  hens.  It  is  surprising  how 
much  water  hens  drink  when  they  can  get  it.  Skim-milk 
is  excellent.  It  may  be  said  in  this  connection  that  hens 
which  have  plenty  of  exercise  rarely  get  too  fat  to  lay.  A 
poor  hen  never  lays  eggs.  Unless  a  hen  is  well  fed  she  should 
not  be  expected  to  lay  eggs. 

During  the  autumn  months,  usually  September  and  Octo- 
ber, chickens  moult,  that  is,  shed  their  feathers  and  get  new 
ones.  At  this  time  hens  do  not  lay  eggs,  but  they  should  be 
carefully  fed  just  the  same.  Plenty  of  green  feed  should  be 
given;  also,  beef- scrap,  meat,  or  green  ground  bone.  It  is 
desirable  to  get  them  through  the  moulting  season  as  soon  as 
possible  so  that  they  will  begin  laying  eggs.  Eggs  at  this 
season  always  command  a  high  price. 

The  sitting  hen  is  put  to  a  severe  strain  to  provide  the 
necessary  heat  for  keeping  her  eggs  at  the  proper  temperature 
and  she  needs  food  which  is  heat-producing,  that  is,  food 
having  a  large  proportion  of  starch  and  fat.  Corn  is  one  of 
the  best  feeds.  Other  feeds  should  also  be  supplied.  Plenty 
of  clean  water,  grit,  and  dust  should  be  provided. 

Poultrymen  have  different  opinions  as  to  the  best  method 
of  feeding  young  chicks,  but  all  agree  that  no  feed  should  be 
given  for  thirty-six  hours  after  the  chick  is  hatched.  When 
the  chick  is  hatched  its  digestive  tract  is  full  of  the  yolk  of 
the  egg,  and  this  supplies  its  wants  for  some  time.  Some 
poultrymen  would  give  as  the  first  feed  something  soft,  like 
corn-meal  wet;  others  prefer  dry  feed,  like  mixed  grains 
cracked  fine,  or  dry  rolled  oats.  In  a  few  days  small  grains 
and  cracked  corn  can  be  fed.  Whole  wheat,  cracked  corn, 
and  skim-milk  are  standard  feeds  for  young  chicks.  As  soon 
as  "feathered  out,"  they  can  be  fed  much  the  same  as  mature 


354  AGRICULTURE   FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

chickens.    Of  course,  plenty  of  water,  grit,  and  charcoal  are 
necessities. 

The  natural  food  of  ducks  is  vegetable  and  animal  and  al- 
ways in  the  soft  state.  The  duck  has  no  crop  and  the  food 
passes  directly  to  the  gizzard.  Food  for  young  ducklings  at 
first  should  be  cracker  or  bread  crumbs  and  corn-meal 
moistened.  In  a  few  days  a  mixture  of  bran,  corn-meal, 
rolled  oats,  and  beef  scrap  may  be  given.  Some  sand  may 
be  mixed  with  the  feed  to  good  advantage.  Green  feed  like 
grass  and  clover  should  be  plentifully  supplied.  Ducks  will 
do  well  without  water  to  swim  in. 

Goslings  also  require  soft  feed.  Their  first  food  should  be 
grass,  fed  on  the  sod;*  then  corn-meal,  moistened,  with  a 
little  sand  and  charcoal  mixed  in.  After  the  goslings  are 
four  or  five  days  old  they  can  be  allowed  to  roam  where  they 
will,  but  they  should  continue  to  receive  soft  food  like  corn- 
meal  and  wheat  bran  mixed  and  cooked.  Geese  are  naturally 
grass-eaters,  and  a  pasture  or  orchard  is  where  they  do  best. 
A  patch  of  rape  is  most  excellent  for  geese.    So  also  is  clover. 

Young  turkeys  are  very  delicate  and  must  be  carefully 
protected  from  wet  grass  and  rain  until  they  are  about  six  or 
seven  weeks  old.  Soft  feed  is  best  also  for  young  turkeys. 
Stale  bread  or  corn  bread  dipped  in  milk  is  excellent.  When 
the  grass  is  dry  they  should  have  plenty  of  range  to  catch  in- 
sects. After  they  are  six  weeks  or  more  old  they  can  eat  any- 
thing that  is  good  for  chickens.  Turkeys  need  plenty  of 
range  to  do  well. 

One  thing  should  be  kept  in  mind  concerning  the  feeding 
of  all  young  poultry — the  feed  should  be  fresh  and  free  from 
all  sourness. 

*  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  64. 


APPENDICES 


356 


APPENDIX 


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APPENDIX 


357 


85 

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358 


APPENDIX 


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APPENDIX 


359 


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APPENDIX  B 

REFERENCE  BOOKS 

For  more  extended  information  on  the  topics  discussed  in  this  book, 
the  following  authorities  may  be  consulted,  ail  of  which  and  many  more 
were  used  in  the  preparation  of  this  work: 

SOILS  AND  FERTILIZERS 

The  Soil— F.  H.  King,  Macmillan  Co. 

Soils— C.  W.  Burkett,  Orange  Judd  Co. 

Soils— S.  W.  Fletcher,  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

Soils  and  Fertilizers — Harry  Snyder,  Macmillan  Co. 

Fertilizers — E.  B.  Vorhees,  Macmillan  Co. 

Agriculture,  Vol.  I — Wm.  Brooks,  Home  Correspondence  School. 

Irrigation  and  Drainage — F.  H.  King,  Macmillan  Co. 

FARM  CROPS 

The  Cereals  in  America — Thos.  H.  Hunt,  Orange  Judd  Co. 

Forage  and  Fibre  Crops — Thos.  H.  Hunt,  Orange  Judd  Co. 

Forage  Crops — E.  B.  Vorhees,  Macmillan  Co. 

Farm  Grasses  in  United  States — W.  J.  Spillman,  Orange  Judd  Co. 

Clovers — Thos.  Shaw,  Orange  Judd  Co. 

Forage  Crops — ^Thos.  Shaw,  Orange  Judd  Co. 

Grasses — Thos.  Shaw,  Orange  Judd  Co. 

Soiling  Crops — Thos.  Shaw,  Orange  Judd  Co. 

Agriculture,  Vol.  II — Wm.  Brooks,  Home  Correspondence  School. 

The  Book  of  Corn — Herbert  Myrick,  et  al.  Orange  Judd  Co. 

HORTICULTURE 

The  Principles  of  Fruit  Growing — L.  H.  Bailey,  Macmillan  Co. 
The  Pruning  Book — L.  H.  Bailey,  Macmillan  Co. 
Vegetable  Gardening — S.  B.  Green,  Webb  Publishing  Co. 

360 


APPENDIX  361 

Bush  Fruits— F.  W.  Card,  Macmillan  Co. 

The  Spraying  of  Plants — E.  G.  Lodeman,  Macmillan  Co. 

ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

Types  and  Breeds  of  Live  Stock — C.  S.  Plumb,  Ginn  &  Co. 
Breeds  of  Live  Stock — Thos.  Shaw,  Orange  Judd  Co. 
Domestic  Animals — Shaler,  Ginn  &  Co. 
Farm  Animals — Wilcox  and  Smith,  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 
Animal  Breeding — Thos.  Shaw,  Orange  Judd  Co. 
Principles  of  Breeding — E.  Davenport,  Ginn  &  Co. 
Agriculture,  Vol.  Ill — Wm.  Brooks,  Home  Correspondence  School. 
Feeding  Animals — W.  H.  Jordan,  Macmillan  Co. 
Feeding  Farm  Animals — Thos.  Shaw,  Orange  Judd  Co. 
Profitable  Stock  Feeding— H.  R.  Smith,  Published  by  the  Author. 
Feeds  and  Feeding — W.  A.  Henry,  Published  by  the  Author. 
Farm  Poultry — Geo.  C.  Watson,  Macmillan  Co. 
The  Perfected  Poultry  of  America — McGrew  and  Howard,  Howard 
Publishing  Co. 

DAIRYING 

Milk  and  Its  Products— H.  H.  Wing,  Macmillan  Co. 

Elements  of  Dairying — John  H.  Decker,  Published  by  the  Author. 

Canadian  Dairying — H.  H.  Dean,  Wm.  Briggs,  Toronto. 

Principles  and  Practice  of  Butter-Making — McKay  and  Larsen,  Wiley 

and  Sons. 
Testing  Milk — Farrington  and  Woll,  Mendota  Publishing  Co. 

BEES 

How  to  Keep  Bees — Anna  B.  Comstock,  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 
A.  B.  C.  of  Beekeeping — A.  I.  Root  Publishing  Co.,  Medina,  O. 
Bulletin  1,  Division  of  Entomology — U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

CYCLOPEDIAS 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Horticulture,  4  Vols. — L.  H.  Bailey,  Mac- 
millan Co. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  4  Vols — L.  H.  Bailey,  Mac- 
millan Co. 


362  APPENDIX 

Farmers'  Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture — Wilcox  and  Smith,  Orange  Judd 
Co. 

Also,  consult  the  various  bulletins  of  the  State  Experiment 
Stations  and  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 


APPENDIX  C 

EDUCATION  AND  AGRICULTURE 
READING 

Reading  stands  first  in  the  course  of  study  because  it  fur- 
nishes the  key  that  unlocks  the  door  to  so  many  subjects. 
Its  work  is  interpretation,  which  may  be  merely  mechanical  or 
deeply  significant.  The  child  comes  to  school  with  an  ear 
vocabulary,  and  reading  must  help  him  translate  this  into  an 
eye  vocabulary.  This  is  the  mechanical  side  of  the  subject 
and  is  merely  the  means  to  the  real  end.  The  printed  words 
that  he  learns  must  become  the  symbols  of  deeply  significant 
ideas.  Indeed,  reading  pushes  naturally  over  into  the  realm 
of  art,  and  interpretation  includes  an  appreciation  of  the  har- 
mony existing  between  the  truth  expressed  and  the  form  of  its 
expression.  The  justification  of  the  use  of  high-grade  litera- 
ture in  our  readers  is  found  here. 

The  teacher  is  reminded  that  here  the  every-day  experi- 
ences of  the  child  with  all  his  imagery  must  be  employed  in 
the  interpretation.  The  child's  world  must  furnish  the  basis 
of  his  choice  in  reading.  The  end  is  to  train  the  child  to  read 
understand ingly  and,  when  he  reads  orally,  in  a  way  to  be 
understood.  The  ability  to  read  is  the  most  essential  of  all 
the  tools  that  the  school  furnishes.  There  are  two  phases 
of  reading  which  must  be  emphasized,  each  of  which  may 
be  closely  related  to  the  life  of  the  child  on  the  farm.    In  the 

363 


364  APPENDIX 

first  place,  the  teacher  may  set  it  down  as  unqualifiedly  true 
that  the  child  cannot  be  taught  to  read  from  a  text-book 
alone.  Natural  expression  can  come  only  out  of  his  own 
life.  The  child  in  the  first  and  second  grades  must  furnish 
his  own  reading  lesson  out  of  the  abundance  of  his  own  ex- 
periences and  he  must  tell  it  in  his  own  way.  If  he  feels 
that  he  has  the  complete  sympathy  of  the  teacher,  he  may 
give  the  fullest,  most  natural  expression  to  some  childish 
experience,  and  when  the  teacher  has  written  his  story  on 
the  board  may  be  made  to  realize  that  the  language  is  the 
symbol  of  his  actual  experience. 

The  assignment,  therefore,  must  find  its  first  subject-mat- 
ter in  the  child's  world.  Then,  after  the  child  has  learned  to 
read,  and  has  become  mature  enough  to  read  real  works  of 
literature,  the  teacher  should  still  make  his  choice  of  reading- 
matter  reflect  the  life  of  the  child.  The  poetry  of  nature  and 
the  prose  of  farm  and  field  should  be  chosen  in  part,  at  least, 
because  in  these  the  child  will  find  himself  and  will  realize 
that  his  world  is  recognized.  The  country  boy  and  girl 
possess  the  imagery  with  which  to  interpret  Shakespeare, 
Wordsworth,  Gray,  Thomson,  Burns,  Bryant,  and  Whittier. 
It  is  their 

"Knowledge  never  learned  of  schools 
Of  the  wild  bee's  morning  chase, 
Of  the  wild  flower's  time  and  place, 

Flight  of  fowl  and  habitude 

Of  the  tenants  of  the  wood" 

that  makes  it  possible  for  them  to  appreciate  the  beauty  of  the 
masterpiece  at  its  full  value. 

Whittier's  "  Barefoot  Boy  "  is  a  good  type  of  the  material 
that  should  be  used  in  the  reading  work  of  the  country  school. 


APPENDIX  365 

In  assigning  it  the  teacher  should  try  to  use  the  fullest  ex- 
perience of  the  children  in  its  interpretation.  Some  such 
points  as  the  following  may  be  emphasized : 

Read  the  whole  poem.  What  is  the  principal  thought  run- 
ning through  it?  Do  you  think  Whittier  had  experienced 
what  he  is  talking  about  ?  Why  do  you  think  so  ?  Indicate 
the  parts  of  the  poem  which  describe  experiences  you  have 
had.  Classify  each  experience  under  the  sense  through  which 
it  came.  Which  experiences  are  most  vividly  portrayed? 
Through  which  sense  did  these  come  ?  Do  you  like  the  poem  ? 
Indicate  the  parts  you  like  best.  Try  to  tell  why  you  like 
these  particular  passages. 

It  is  said  that  farmers  have  no  sense  of  the  aesthetic;  that 
they  look  on  the  daisy  and  the  vine  merely  as  troublesome 
weeds.  If  this  is  true  it  ought  not  to  be  so,  because  out- 
door beauty  may  be  counted  as  one  of  the  chief  assets  of 
country  life.  In  developing  a  love  for  nature  the  rural  school 
has  a  decided  advantage  over  the  city  school. 

spelling 

Spelling  cannot  be  taught  incidentally.  It  must 
have  the  systematic  attention  of  the  teacher  as  a 
separate  subject  and  his  constant  care  in  all  his 
WRITTEN  WORK.  While  oral  spelling  is  helpful  in  fixing 
forms,  written  spelling  must  receive  the  larger  stress  be- 
cause of  its  importance  in  writing  the  language.  The  eye 
rather  than  the  ear  must  be  trained.  Constant  drill  in 
writing  the  correct  form  of  a  .word  serves  to  fix  it  in  the 
mind. 

The  life  of  the  children  should  supplement  the  Spelling- 
Book  in  the  matter  of  spelling  lessons.    Each  community  has 


366  APPENDIX 

its  own  vocabulary.  There  is  a  farm  vocabulary,  and  it  is 
essential  that  the  children  should  learn  to  use  it  accurately 
and  intelligently.  The  home  life  should  dictate  the  point  of 
departure,  and  the  community  vocabulary  should  be  utilized. 
The  assignments  may  from  day  to  day  call  for  lists  of  ten 
or  twenty  words  covering  the  entire  range  of  life  in  the 
community.  The  teacher  may  ask  the  class  to  hand  in  a 
list  of  ten  words  that  are  names  of  kitchen  utensils.  Suppose 
there  are  five  children  in  the  class  and  the  teacher  finds  that 
twenty  different  words  have  been  named.  Such  a  device 
furnishes  the  fairest  test  of  the  child's  ability  to  spell  these 
words  because  he  suggests  them  to  himself  and  is  not  aided 
by  having  them  pronounced.  The  teacher  should  correct 
the  lists  and  hand  them  back.  Then  the  list  of  the  twenty 
different  words  should  be  used  as  a  spelling  lesson  and  made 
a  part  of  a  permanent  list,  the  words  in  which  are  not  to  be 
repeated  in  the  future  exercises  of  making  a  community  vo- 
cabulary. Then,  in  turn,  lists  in  other  of  the  home  depart- 
ments, lists  in  all  the  industrial  departments  covering  every 
phase  of  farm  life,  lists  covering  the  vocabulary  of  the  social j 
the  civil  or  governmental,  the  religious,  and  the  school  life  of 
the  community  should  be  made.  Spelling  may  thus  become 
a  usable  tool  for  the  child. 

The  assignment  may  take  another  form  and  accomplish 
the  same  purpose.  Suppose  the  teacher  has  it  in  mind  to 
teach  inductively  the  definition  of  synonym.  He  may  write 
the  following  assignment  on  the  board : 

Farmer;   grower;   cultivator;   agriculturist;   husbandman. 

1.  Pronounce  these  words. 

2.  Give  the  meaning  of  each. 

3.  Use  one  of  these  words  in  a  sentence. 


APPENDIX  367 

4.  Substitute  as  many  words  as  possible  for  this  word  in 
this  sentence. 

5.  Upon  what  basis  may  these  words  be  classified  ? 

6.  Think  of  a  name  or  word  that  appropriately  expresses 
words  classified  on  such  a  basis. 

7.  State  what  is  meant  by  such  words. 

The  following  group  of  farm  words  could  be  used  in  the 
same  way:  Cultivate,  till,  prepare,  work,  manure,  plow, 
dress,  sow. 

The  teacher  may  ask  the  class  to  write  and  use  in  sentences 
the  names  of  all  the  parts  of  the  reaping-machine.  Or  the 
teacher  may  suggest  the  following  list  and  ask  the  class  to 
use  the  words  properly  in  sentences:  Reaper,  harvester, 
knife,  finger,  finger-bar,  rake,  reel,  platform,  dropper,  binder, 
wire,  twine,  artn,  sheaf,  grain,  bundle.  The  spelling  work 
must  be  made  to  mean  something. 

ARITHMETIC 

The  main  objects  to  be  secured  in  the  study  of  arithmetic 
are  the  ability  to  think  number;  the  acquisition  of  skill, 
rapidity,  and  accuracy  in  the  use  of  numbers  required  in  or- 
dinary business  transactions;  and  the  development  of  power 
in  the  application  of  the  processes  to  the  solution  of  all  classes 
of  problems.  While  the  importance  of  this  subject  in  the 
elementary  school  should  be  emphasized,  it  should  not  be  so 
exaggerated  as  to  deprive  other  subjects  of  their  due  share  of 
attention.  The  work  should  be  made  intensive  rather  than 
extensive;  the  number  of  topics  should  be  diminished  and 
greater  stress  put  upon  those  that  are  studied. 

In  teaching  arithmetic  the  work  should  be  made  as  con- 
crete as  possible.    The  problems  in  the  book  may  be  supple- 


368  APPENDIX 

merited  by  the  introduction  of  a  large  number  bearing  upon 
the  environment  and  interests  of  the  pupils.  The  household, 
the  farm,  the  shop,  the  market,  the  trade,  will  furnish  ma- 
terial, and  the  prices  and  conditions  should  be  the  real  ones 
rather  than  the  fancied  ones  of  the  books.  The  teacher  should 
take  from  the  actual  business  world,  the  tax  office,  the  bank, 
the  insurance  office,  the  store,  actual  business  transactions 
and  make  these  the  basis  of  the  problems  used.  The  actual 
market-price  of  a  commodity  with  the  actual  amount  bought 
and  sold  by  an  actual  person  will  give  reality  to  a  problem. 

In  studying  arithmetic  the  pupil  should  count  the  things  at 
hand  rapidly  and  accurately.  The  trees  in  a  certain  space, 
the  rows  of  corn  in  a  field,  the  number  of  shocks  of  wheat 
or  corn,  the  number  of  rows  on  an  ear  of  corn,  the  number 
of  grains  in  a  row  and  on  the  ear,  the  number  of  pupils  in  a 
row  of  seats,  the  number  of  rows,  the  number  of  pupils  in  the 
room,  the  number  in  the  building — all  objects  at  hand  should 
be  used.  The  very  fact  that  they  are  at  hand,  and  that  the 
pupil  is  doing  the  work  with  them,  will  lend  interest  to  the 
study. 

The  same  material  and  data  used  in  counting  may  be  used 
in  teaching  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division. 
The  child  ought  to  be  led  to  discover  that  these  processes  are 
quicker  than  counting  and  why  this  is  so.  In  a  room  with 
so  many  rows  of  seats,  and  so  many  seats  in  a  row,  he 
ought  to  discover  shortly  the  way  to  find  the  whole  number 
of  seats  without  counting  them.  He  should  be  led  to  make 
a  map  or  plot  of  the  room,  of  the  corn  field,  of  the  wheat  field 
and  its  shocks;  he  should  measure  accurately  the  school- 
house,  the  home,  the  field,  and  the  farm.  He  should  find  out 
by  actual  work  how  corn,  and  wheat,  and  potatoes,  and  hay 


APPENDIX  369 

are  measured  and  sold,  and  what  is  the  actual  seUing-priee 
from  day  to  day.  He  should  find  out  about  butter,  and  eggs, 
and  wool.  Let  him  discover  which  would  be  fairer,  to  sell 
eggs  by  the  dozen  or  by  the  pound.  Let  him  find  out  how 
much  corn  the  soil  in  his  school  district  will  produce  to  the 
acre,  how  many  acres  were  in  corn  last  year,  and  how  much 
corn  was  produced. 

Nor  is  it  a  boy's  problem  alone.  There  are  quarts  of  milk 
and  pounds  of  butter,  and  yards  of  goods,  and  curtains  and 
carpets  and  scores  of  things  for  the  practical  housekeeper  to 
know  about.  These  actual  numbers  that  the  children  have 
counted  and  collected  and  experienced  are  alive  to  them, 
and  can  be  used  in  every  step  in  arithmetic.  As  the  work 
advances  it  should  be  made  more  and  more  constructive. 
Every  principle  should  have  concrete  application.  Actual 
fields  should  be  measured  by  actual  chains  and  plotted  accu- 
rately to  a  definite  scale.  Actual  fields  of  wheat  and  oats  and 
corn  should  be  estimated,  and  actual  bins  should  be  meas- 
ured to  determine  their  capacity.  At  every  step  of  the  way 
the  pupil  should  be  led  to  construct  his  problem  and  to  look  at 
actual  conditions.  The  things  at  hand  in  every  community, 
the  occupations  that  are  dominant,  the  interests  that  are 
prominent, — these  are  the  means  of  education. 

It  is  not  a  question  of  teaching  arithmetic  in  the  abstract, 
but  of  teaching  particular  children  arithmetic  in  the  concrete. 
The  problem  is  not  to  instruct  in  arithmetic;  it  is  to  teach 
children  with  this  setting  to  think  number  accurately  and 
rapidly,  and  to  apply  principles  under  actual  conditions. 
With  this  idea  the  text  with  its  pages  and  problems  disap- 
pears and  in  its  stead  come  fundamental  arithmetical  prin- 
ciples which  the  teacher  is  to  lead  the  children  to  master. 


370  APPENDIX 

The  child  thus  becomes  the  determining  factor  at  every 
step  of  the  way.  It  is  upon  what  he  can  furnish  as  a  basis  of 
interpretation  that  the  teacher  must  depend.  In  making  his 
assignments  in  arithmetic,  then,  the  teacher  will  see  to  it  that 
the  child  always  finds  himself  in  these  assignments. 

Some  members  of  the  class  may  be  assigned  special  prob- 
lems more  or  less  closely  related  to  the  principle  in  question. 
The  following  are  suggested:  (1)  On  October  6,  1907,  hogs 
were  quoted  in  the  Chicago  market  at  $6.60  a  hundred;  they 
showed  an  average  daily  decline  of  7  cents  a  hundred  between 
October  6  and  November  25;  what  was  the  quotation  on 
November  25  ?  (2)  What  per  cent,  of  the  original  price  was 
the  decline  ?  (3)  I  found  the  length  of  a  fence  around  a  lot 
to  be  four  miles,  100  rods,  and  4  yards;  counting  each  step 
that  I  took  in  measuring  the  fence  27  inches,  how  many  steps 
did  I  take  ?  (4)  From  November  15  to  November  30,  John's 
cow  gave  63  gallons  and  3  quarts  of  milk;  what  was  the  daily 
average  ?  (5)  If  a  pint  of  milk  weighs  a  pound,  how  many 
pounds  of  milk  does  John's  cow  give  in  a  day  ?  (6)  Is  the 
quantity  of  milk  John's  cow  gives  above  or  below  the  average 
for  a  good  cow  ?  Base  your  answer  upon  actual  data.  (See 
Bulletin  No.  127,  Indiana  Experiment  Station.) 

For  the  class  in  percentage  the  following  problems  are  sug- 
gested as  a  type  for  supplementary  work:  (1)  If  a  farmer  in 
Alabama  increased  his  acreage  yield  of  sweet  potatoes  from 
35  bushels  to  250  bushels,  what  was  the  per  cent,  of  increase  ? 
(2)  In  a  space  for  a  shock  of  corn  12  by  12  hills  there  are 
420  stalks  of  corn;  21  stalks  had  no  corn  in  them — i.  e.,  they 
were  sterile;  what  per  cent,  of  the  stalks  yielded  corn  ?  (3) 
With  a  loss  of  10  per  cent,  from  sterile  stalks  the  yield  is  63 
bushels  per  acre;   what  would  the  yield  have  been  with  no 


APPENDIX  371 

sterile  stalks  ?  (4)  With  corn  at  40  cents  a  bushel,  what  was 
the  loss  in  money  ?  (5)  Select  10  ears  of  corn  November  first 
and  weigh  them ;  weigh  them  again  the  first  week  in  January, 
the  first  week  in  March,  and  the  first  week  in  April;  com- 
pute the  per  cent,  of  loss  at  each  weighing.  (6)  If  corn  can 
be  marketed  in  the  fall  at  35  cents  a  bushel,  would  it  pay  to 
keep  it  till  March  and  sell  it  for  40  cents  a  bushel  ?  Why  ? 
(7)  What  per  cent,  do  potatoes  lose  from  digging  time  to  the 
first  of  April  ?  In  making  a  test  see  if  varieties  differ.  (8) 
A  cow  gives  625  pounds  of  milk  a  month;  the  milk  tests 
3.9  per  cent,  butter-fat;  how  many  pounds  of  butter-fat  were 

produced  ? 

GEOGRAPHY 

During  the  first  three  years  no  text  is  used  in  geography. 
However,  no  subject  in  the  school  course  lends  itself  more 
completely  to  expression  and  construction  in  teaching  than 
geography.  The  material  is  at  the  very  door  of  the  school- 
house  in  abundance.  Hills  and  valleys,  springs,  brooks  and 
rivers,  capes,  bays,  peninsulas  and  islands,  flora  and  fauna, 
the  hand  of  nature  and  the  hand  of  civilization,  the  book  of 
geography  is  open  for  him  who  can  read.  If  the  teacher  has 
SEEN,  the  joy  of  making  the  children  see  awaits  him.  If  he 
has  NOT  SEEN,  all  this  wealth  is  a  closed  book. 

The  central  thought  in  geography  is  location.  The  law 
of  distribution  is  the  significant  thing.  One  of  the  most 
important  things  is  to  get. right  notions  and  impressions  re- 
garding direction  and  distance,  and  with  it  to  be  able  to  read 
maps.  The  best  way  to  get  such  right  notions  and  images  is 
through  constructive  work  in  early  childhood,  and  the  best 
place  is  the  school-house,  with  its  environment.  First,  make 
a  map  of  the  school-house,  plotting  it  accurately,  with  one- 


372  APPENDIX 

eighth  or  one-fourth  of  an  inch  to  the  foot  as  the  scale. 
Locate  accurately  everything  in  the  room.  Next,  make  such 
a  map  of  the  school  grounds.  Extend  the  work  to  the  dis- 
trict, and  locate  hills,  valleys,  streams,  farms,  houses,  accu- 
rately. Study  all  farms  at  first  hand  and  put  them  in  their 
proper  places.  With  all  this  the  child  will  be  prepared  to 
answer  intelligently  how  these  farms  came  to  be  where  they 
are  and  the  effect  their  location  has  had  on  the  life  about  them. 
With  such  constructive  work  at  home  the  child  will  have  a 
basis  for  comprehending  the  larger  world.  This  construc- 
tive work  could  not  begin  before  the  third  year,  probably, 
and  could  not  be  completed  before  the  eighth.  The  one 
thing  the  teacher  needs  to  do  is  to  make  an  intelligent  use 
of  the  material  at  hand. 

This  method  places  much  emphasis  upon  the  use  of  the 
neighborhood  for  developing  geographical  notions.  This  is 
the  centre  of  the  child's  world,  and  the  work  in  geography 
should  begin  here  instead  of  in  some  far-off  place.  The  things 
close  at  hand  should  become  a  help  in  the  interpretation  of 
earth  facts  farther  removed.  The  data  at  hand  must  suggest 
when  to  begin.  Select  the  best  types  and  make  the  assign- 
ment definite  and  exhaustive.  Perhaps  there  is  a  good  type 
of  spring  at  hand.  Lead  the  pupils  to  see  all  the  conditions 
present.  See  if  they  can  formulate  a  spring  theory.  See  if 
they  can  think  of  other  conditions  than  those  present  from 
which  a  spring  might  be  formed.  Does  the  spring  here  have 
an  outlet  ?  What  becomes  of  the  spring  thus  formed  ? 
Perhaps  the  spring  has  no  visible  outlet.    What  then  ? 

The  district  or  community  may  furnish  other  types  of 
springs.  If  so  hunt  them  up  with  the  children.  The  point  is 
to  have  these  earth  facts  teach  a  complete  lesson.    It  will  take 


APPENDIX  373 

time,  but  if  every  child  can  be  led  to  see  the  facts  at  hand 
and  from  them  to  draw  sound  conclusions  he  will  have 
begun  to  think.  One  such  lesson  is  worth  more  in  his  educa- 
tion than  mechanically  memorizing  the  whole  text  in  geog- 
raphy would  be. 

EXCURSIONS 

This  kind  of  instruction,  and,  in  fact,  much  of  the  later 
study  of  geography,  requires  an  occasional  excursion.  Yet  it 
is  well  to  keep  in  mind  that  properly  conducted  excursions 
require  an  unusual  degree  of  energy  and  skill  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher.  The  children  may  easily  mistake  such  an  outing 
for  a  picnic,  and  thus  bring  disaster  to  the  teacher  and  to  the 
cause.  On  the  other  hand,  the  ability  to  conduct  an  excur- 
sion well  is  one  of  the  best  tests  of  an  able  teacher. 


INDEX 


Acid  phosphate,  59 
Agriculture,  defined,  137 
Air-drainage,  138 
Alfalfa,  109,  110 
A.nthracnose,  208 
Apple,  the,  155 

twig  blight  of,  209 
Apricot,  the,  160 
Arid  regions,  30 
Artichokes,  102 
Ashes,  as  fertilizers,  60 
Asparagus,  179 
Atavism,  272 

Babcock  test,  326 

Bacteria,  denitrifying,  14;  in 
cream,  311;  in  milk,  299;  in 
soil,  13 

Bagasse,  120 

Balanced  ration,  281 

Barley,  culture,  91,  92;  harvesting, 
92;  history,  91;  varieties,  92 

Beans,  173 

Bee-glue,  335 

Bees,  drone,  333;  hives  for,  336; 
life  history  of,  331,  332,  333; 
locations  for,  330;  number  in 
swarm  of,  31;  queen,  331,  332, 
333;  races  of,  331;  swarming, 
338;  winter  protection  for, 
337;  worker,  332 

Beet  pulp,  120 

Beetles,  195 

Birds,  200,  201 

Blackberry,  the,  164 

Blights,  208,  209,  21Q 


Bloody  milk,  298 

Bordeaux  mixture,  208,  211 

Borers,  195 

Breeding  animals,  care  of,  270 

Broom  corn,  122,  123 

Buckwheat,  94 

Bulbs,  examples  of,  66;  explained, 
65;  ornamental,  186 

Burro,  226 

Butter,  310;  composition  of,  318; 
preparing  for  market,  318; 
renovated  or  process,  324; 
salting,  317;  sour-cream,  311; 
sweet-cream,  311;  use  of  but- 
ter color  in,  315;  washing, 
316;  water  allowed  by  law  in, 
318;  working,  317 

Butter-fat,  definition,  235;  testing 
for,  326;  things  affecting,  296 

Butter-milk,  315 

Cabbage-like  plants,  174 

Canadian  field  peas,  118 

Carbohydrates,  277 

Carrots,  96 

Catalo,  232 

Catch  crop  defined,  113 

Caterpillars,  196,  197 

Cattle,  beef  type,  227;  blue-gray, 
232 
breeds  of — 

Aberdeen  Angus,  230;  Ayr- 
shire, 238;  Brown  Swiss,  242; 
Devon,  240;  Dutch  Belted, 
239;  French  Canadian,  240; 
Galloway,  231 ;  Guernsey,  236; 


375 


376 


INDEX 


Cattle — Continued 

Hereford,  229;  Holstein-Fries- 
ian,  237;  Jersey,  234;  Kerry, 
239;  Longhorn,  233;  Polled 
Durham,  229,  240;  Red 
Polled,  241;  Shorthorn,  228, 
240;  Sussex,  233;  West  High- 
land, 232;  classes  of,  227; 
dairy  type,  233;  dual-purpose 
type,  240;  history,  227 

Celeriac,  180 

Celery,  179 

Cereals,  64 

Cheese,  cheddar,  320,  321,  322; 
composition  of,  319;  cottage, 
319;  kinds  of,  322  323;  lim- 
burger,  323 

Cherry,  the,  158 

Chickens,  classes  of — 

American,  341;  Asiatic,  341 
Enghsh,    342;    French,    343 
Games,  343;  Hamburg,  343 
Mediterranean,    342;    miscel- 
laneous,    344;     ornamental, 
344;  Polish,  343;  feeding,  351- 
353;  chicken  mite,  351 ;  moult- 
ing,  353;    standard    variety, 
explained,  339 

Chinch  bug,  198 

Churning,  effect  of,  314 

Churns,  315 

Clover,  alsike,  108;  crimson,  108; 
mammoth,  107;  red,  106 

Codling  moth,  192 

Cold-frame,  construction  of,  171 

Colostrum,  297 

Commercial  fertilizer,  classes,  55; 
complete,  55;  definition,  55; 
effect  on  soil,  63;  how  ap- 
plied, 62 

Compost  heap,  168 

Condensed  milk,  323 

Copper  sulphate,  212 

Corn,  average  yield,  79;  cultiva- 
tion, 71,  72;  for  forage,  115; 


for  silage,  115;  for  soiling,  119; 
harvesting,  73;  history,  67 
kinds — 

dent,  68;  flint,  68;  pod,  69; 
pop,  69;  so^t,  69;  sweet,  68, 
178 
planting,  71;  preparing  for 
planter,  79;  preparation  of 
seed-bed,  70;  saving  seed,  74; 
selecting  seed  ears,  77;  smut, 
208;  soil  for,  70;  testing,  74, 
76,  77;  variations  in,  69 

Corn-belt  states,  67 

Correlation,  273 

Cotton,  126-128 

Cotton-seed  meal,  57 

Cow-peas,  95,  111 

Cream,  definition,  304;  methods  of 
separation,  304-307;  methods 
of  souring,  312;  pasteuriza- 
tion, 313;  preparing  for  the 
churn,  310-314;  reasons  for 
souring,  311;  ripening,  311, 
312,  314;  temperature  at 
churning,  316 

Crocus,  186 

Cross-breeding,  260 

Crude  fibre,  277 

Cucumbers,  177 

Cultivation,  defined,  44;  depth  of, 
46;  for  corn,  71,  72;  for  con- 
trolling insects,  202;  for  pota- 
toes, 101;  number  of  cultiva- 
tions, 46;  objects  of,  44; 
moisture  saved  by,  45 

Cultivators,  kinds,  47 

Culture,  defined,  67 

Currant,  the,  161 

Cut  worm,  191 

Dahlia,  187 

Dairying,  adaptable  breeds  for, 
293;  cleanliness  in  292,  299- 
303;  definition  of,  290 


INDEX 


377 


Dewberry,  the,  164 

Diffusion,  23 

Digestibility,  coefficient  of,  278 

Disking,  purpose  of/  42,  43 

Dissolved  bone,  59 

Donkey,  225 

Double  standard,  229 

Drainage,  25,  27 

Drains,  24,  25,  29 

Dried  blood,  55 

Dry  farming,  32 

Ducks,  344,  354 

Fallowing,  48 

Farm  animals,  explained,  213 

Farm  crops,  classification  of,  164 

Farm  manures,  "cold,"  49;  com- 
posting, 168;  factors  affecting 
value  of,  49;  for  gardens,  168; 
"hot,"  49;  how  to  apply,  52, 
53;  how  to  preserve,  50;  kinds 
of,  49;  lasting  effect  of,  54; 
losses  from  exposure,  51; 
losses  from  heating,  51; 
sources  of,  49 

Fat,  277 

Feeding,  affecting  butter-fa,t,  296; 
dry  feed  for,  288;  grinding  and 
cooking  for,  288;  pasturing, 
286;  selecting  feeders  for,  283 
-286;  soiling,  287;  standards, 
282;  terms  used  in,  274-282 

Feeding  stuffs,  274,  279,  280 

Fibre  crops,  66,  123 

Fish  fertilizers,  57 

Flax,  124 

Flooding,  33 

Flowers  for  ornament,  186,  187, 
188 

Fodder,  explained,  73,  115 

Foundation  stock,  explained,  220, 
267;  healthy  animals  for,  270; 
mature  animals  for,  269;  pedi- 
greed, 269;  well-bred  animals 
for,  267 


Food  elements  returned  in  excre- 
ment, 49 

Forage  crops,  66,  105 

Forage,  defined,  66 

Fruits,  classification  of,  138;  pome, 
155;  small,  161;  stone,  158; 
tree,  155;  vine,  160 

Furrows,  kinds  of,  39,  40 

Garden,  166,  167 
Geese,  345,  354 
German  potash  mines,  60 
Gladiolus,  187 
Gluten,  80,  81 
Goats,  254,  255 
Gooseberry,  the,  162 
Gourd  family,  the,  175 
Grading  up,  how  done,  268 
Grafting  wax,  145 
Grape,  the,  160 
Greenhouse,  171 
Green  manuring,  54 
Grub  worms,  196 
Guanos,  57 
Guineas,  346 

Harrowing,  purpose  of,  41 

Harrows,  kinds  of,  41 

Hay,  making  clover,  107;  making 
timothy,  106;  plants  used  for, 
105 

Heading  in,  153 

Hellebore,  white,  203 

Hemp,  125 

Herd  books,  222 

Heredity,  272 

Hessian  fly,  85,  192,  202 

Hoed  corp,  146 

Home  grown  seed,  131 

Honey,  amount  made  by  a  colony, 
336;  extracted,  336;  how  col- 
lected, 334;  ripening,  334; 
source  of,  334 

Horses,  breeds  of — 

American  Trotter,  221',  Bel- 


378 


INDEX 


Horses — Continued 

gian,  217;  Cleveland  Bay, 
219;  Clydesdale,  216;  French 
Coach,  218;  German  Coach, 
218;  Hackney,  218;  Perche- 
ron,  215;  Shire,  216;  Suffolk 
217;  Thoroughbred,  220 
gaits  of,  223;  history  of,  213; 
pacer,  the,  221;  roadster, 
the,  222;  types  of,  214 

Horticulture,  explained,  137 

Hot-bed,  construction  of,  169 

Humid  regions,  30 

Humus,  10 

Ice-cream,  323 

Incubation,  period  of,  348 

Incubator,  348 

Indirect  fertilizers,  61 

Insects,  controlling,  200;  damage 
by,  189;  life  history  of,  189; 
parasitic,  198,  200 

Irrigation,  amount  of  water  used 
in,  31;  definition,  30;  for  rice, 
93;  from  streams,  33;  from 
wells,  33;  reasons  for,  31; 
where  needed,  30 

June-bug,  196 

Kafir  corn,  118 

Kainit,  60 

Kerosene  emulsion,  204 

Lactometer,  325 

Land  plaster  as  a  fertilizer,  61 

Landscape   gardening,    181,    182, 

185 
Lawn,  Making  the,  181,  182 
Legumes,  13,  64 
Lettuce,  178 
Lily,  186 

Lime  as  a  fertilizer,  61 
Limestone  as  a  fertilizer,  61 
London  purple,  203 


Mangel-wurtzels,  97 

Manures  (see  Farm  manures) 

Manure  spreader,  52 

Milk,  abnormal,  298;  aeration  of 
308;   bacteria   in,    299;    bot 
tling,    309;    colostrum,    297 
composition     of,     295,     296 
condensed,  323;  cooHng,  308 
creaming,  303;  definition  of 
294;   disease  germs  in,   299 
for  city  delivery,   307;  milk 
serum,  296;  pasteurization  of, 
313;  products,  319;  secretion 
of,  294;  skim-milk,  304;  test- 
ing for  butter-fat,  326;  test- 
ing   for    water,    325;    whole 
milk,  304 

Milk-powder,  323 

Millets,  93,  113,  114 

Mineral  matter,  9 

Mohair,  254 

Mule,  225,  226 

Muriate  of  potash,  60 

Muskmelons,  176 

Nectarine,  the,  160 

Nitrate  of  potash,  58 

Nitrate  of  soda,  58 

Nitrogen  fertilizers,  sources  of,  55- 

58 
Nodules,  13 
Nutritive  ratio,  281 

Oats,  88-90,  207 

Olericulture,  explained,  166 

Onions,  103,  104 

Orchard,  crops  for,  146,  147;  effect 
of  slope  of,  138,  139;  location, 
138,  139;  pruning  the,  153, 
154;  renovating,  154;  select- 
ing trees  for,  149;  setting  trees 
in,  150,  151,  152;  tillage  for, 
146,  147;  top-grafting,  154 

Orchard  grass,  106 

Organic  matter,  9 


INDEX 


379 


Osmosis,  23 
Oyster-shells  for  hens,  352 

Paris  green,  203 

Parsnips,  98 

Pasteurization,  313 

Pastures,  119,  286 

Peach,  the,  159,  210 

Peafowl,  the,  347 

Pear,  the,  157 

Peas,  173 

Peccary,  257 

Phosphoric  acid,  sources  of,  58,  59 

Plant  diseases,  207 

Plant  food,  11,  12,  23 

Plant-lice,  190 

Planting  board,  151 

Plow,  34,  36 

Plowing,  condition  of  soil  for,  37 
in  autumn,  38;  in  spring,  39 
for  corn,  70;  for  wheat,  84 
purpose  of,  37;  subsoiling,  39 
terms  used  in,  36 

Plum,  the,  158 

Plum  curculio,  193 

Poisons  for  insects,  203,  205 

Pomology,  defined,  138 

Ponies,  224,  225 

Potash,  60 

Potatoes,  99-101,  209 

Potato  beetles,  195 

Potato  family,  the,  174 

Pot-herbs,  178 

Poultry,  definition,  339;  feeding, 
351-354;  hatching,  348;  hous- 
ing, 351;  origin,  339 

Propagation  of  plants,  by  bud- 
ding, 142;  by  cuttings,  141; 
by  grafting,  142,  144;  by  in- 
arching, 145;  by  layering, 
140, 141  by  seeds,  140;  in  cold- 
frames,  169;  in  hot-beds,  169 

Protein,  275 

Pumpkins,  175 

Pyrethrum,  204 


Quince,  the,  157 

Rape,  119,  120 

Raspberry,  the,  162,  163 

Red  top,  106 

Rennet,  319 

Renovated  butter,  324 

Retting,  124 

Rhubarb,  180 

Rice,  92,  93 

Rock  phosphate,  59 

Rolling,  effect  of,  43 

Roots,  65,  96,  97,  99 

Rose-chafer,  196 

Rotation,  corn-belt,  135;  defined, 
133;  maintains  fertihty,  133, 
132;  Norfolk,  135;  object  of, 
133;  qualities  of  a  good,  135, 
136;  Terry,  135 

Rusts,  208 

Rye,  90,  91 

Salad  plants,  178 

Salt,  61,  289,  317 

Scab,  211 

Scale  insects,  190 

Seed  corn  selection,  74,  76,  77 

Seed  plat,  132 

Seed  selection,  home-grown  seed, 
131;  importance  of,  129,  172; 
for  genuineness,  130;  for  pur- 
ity, 129;  for  vitality,  130; 
testing  seed,  131,  132;  use  of 
seed  plat,  132 

Separators,  cream,  306 

Sheep,  breeds  of — 

American  Merino,  251;  Black- 
Faced  Highland,  254;  Cheviot 
250;  Cotswold,  244;  Delaine 
Merino,  252;  Dorset  Horn, 
249;  Hampshire,  248;  Kent, 
or  Romney  Marsh,  253; 
Leicester,  245;  Lincoln,  245; 
Merino,  250;  Oxford,  248; 
Rambouillet      Merino,     252; 


380 


INDEX 


Sheep — ContinuBt^ 

Shropshire,  246;  Southdown, 
247;  Suffolk,  249;  Tunis,  249; 
Wensleydale,  254;  coarse- 
wooled,  243;  fine-wooled,  250; 
history  of,  243;  medium- 
wooled,  246 

Silage,  115-117 

Silo,  115,  116 

Semi-arid  regions,  30 

Smuts,  207 

Snakes,  201 

Soiling,  117,  287 

Soils,  action  of  animals  on,  4;  auc- 
tion of  plants  on,  2;  aeration 
of,  16;  alkali,  32;  alluvial,  6; 
bacteria  in,  13;  color  of,  15; 
distribution,  of  5;  effect  of 
the  wind  on,  5;  for  corn,  70; 
for  oats,  88;  for  potatoes,  99, 
100;  for  wheat,  84;  humus, 
10;  kinds  of,  9;  life  in,  13; 
loess,  7;  origin  of,  1;  plant 
food  in,  10,  11,  12;  porosity 
of,  17;  power  to  retain  moist- 
ure, 21;  sand  dunes,  6;  se- 
dentary, 5;  transported,  5; 
transportation  of,  16;  wash- 
ing away  of,  7;  water  in, 
17;  weathering,  1;  weight, 
15;  wind  formed,  6;  work  of 
glaciers,  6;  work  of  water,  3 

Sorghum,  117 

Soy-beans,  95,  111,  112 

Sports,  162 

Squashes,  175,  176 

Stages  in  life  of  an  insect,  189 

Starters,  312,  313 

Stover,  defined,  73,  115 

Strawberry,  the,  164 

Stud  books,  222 

Subsoiling,  39 

Sugar  beets,  98 

Sulphate  of  ammonia,  58 

Sulphate  of  potash,  60 


Superphosphate,  59 

Sweet  potatoes,  102 

Swine,  bacon  type,  258 
breeds  of — 

Berkshire,  259;  Cheshire,  263; 
Chester  White,  262;  Chinese, 
266;  Duroc- Jersey,  261;  Essex 
264;  Hampshire,  266;  Large 
Yorkshire,  264;  Neapolitan, 
266;  Poland-China,  259;  Small 
Yorkshire,  264;  Suffolk,  264; 
Tamworth,266;  Victoria,  263 
following  cattle,  289;  lard  type, 
257 

Systems  of  creaming,  305,  306 

Tankage,  56 

Temperature  of  soil,  16 

Teosinte,  115 

Terms  used  in  breeding,  267,  268, 

272,  273 
Testing  milk,  composite  samples 
for,  329;  for  adulteration,  325; 

for  butter-fat,  326,  327,  328; 

taking  samples  for,  328 
Testing  seeds,  131,  132 
Thinning,  157,  160,  161 
Tillage,  defined,  34 
Tillering,  86 
Timothy,  105 
Toads,  201 
Tobacco,  121,  122 
Tobacco  stems  as  fertilizers,  60 
Tomatoes,  175 
Top-grafting,  154 
Transplanting,  152,  171 
Trees  for  grounds,  185 
Truck  patch,  166 
Tubers,  65,  186,  187 
TuHps,  186 
Turkeys,  346,  354 
Turnips,  99 

Variation,  273 
Vegetable,  explained,  166 


INDEX 


381 


Vetches,  112 

Washing,  before  milking,  302;  but- 
ter, 316;  dairy  utensils,  300 

Water,  capillary,  19;  capillary 
movement  of,  20;  evapora- 
tion of,  20;  hydrostatic,  19; 
hygroscopic,  19;  legal  amount 
of,  in  butter,  318;  percolation 
of,  20;  surface,  19;  transpira- 
tion of,  20;  used  by  a  corn 
plant,  45;  used  in  irrigation,  31 

Watermelons,  177 

Wheat,  bearded  and  smooth,  83; 
characteristics       of       bread 


wheats,  83;  districts,  81; 
early  plowing  for,  84;  effect 
of  climate  on,  80;  gluten  in, 
81;  harvesting,  86,  87;  his- 
tory, 80;  kinds  of,  82;  making 
a  shock,  87;  methods  of  sow- 
ing, 86;  range  of  latitude,  80; 
rate  of  sowing,  86;  red  and 
white,  83;  rusts,  208;  seed- 
bed for,  84;  selection  of  vari- 
eties, 84;  smut,  208;  soils  for, 
84;  sowing  in  corn,  85;  sweat- 
ing of,  87;  tillering,  86;  time 
to  sow,  85 
Wilts,  210 


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